Electric mobility Smart charging Fast charging Utilitarian welfare Customer satisfaction Expectation-performance gap
Abstract :
[en] Drivers of battery electric vehicles, especially along motorways, require fast-charging services and expect maximum charging power to overcome long servicing times. However, charging park operators cannot always meet customer expectations due to economic and technical restrictions. According to the expectationdisconfirmation theory, the resulting expectation-performance gap increases the dissatisfaction of vehicle drivers regarding the servicing time in a non-linear manner. Therefore, we present an optimization model with a utilitarian welfare function grounded in social choice theory. Besides a current real-world case based on a fastcharging park in Germany, we analyze further (technical) developments of electric mobility with four future cases. Compared to a uniform power allocation, our results display a reduced absolute average gap of up to 4 min (i.e., 13.3%) between expected and actual servicing time in the real-world case, thus, improving welfare by 22.9%. With an increased average gap reduction of up to 5.2 min, our future cases show the importance of addressing the expectations of battery electric vehicle drivers. Without a smart power allocation, the gap and simultaneously the dissatisfaction of vehicle drivers regarding the servicing time can increase, and potentially more hardware upgrades may be necessary.
Research center :
Interdisciplinary Centre for Security, Reliability and Trust (SnT) > FINATRAX - Digital Financial Services and Cross-organizational Digital Transformations
Disciplines :
Computer science
Author, co-author :
Bollenbach, Jessica; Branch Business & Information Systems Engineering of the Fraunhofer FIT, Augsburg, Germany ; FIM Research Center for Information Management, Augsburg, Germany ; University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
Halbrügge, Stephanie; Branch Business & Information Systems Engineering of the Fraunhofer FIT, Augsburg, Germany ; FIM Research Center for Information Management, Augsburg, Germany ; University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
Wederhake, Lars; credium GmbH, Augsburg, Germany
WEIBELZAHL, Martin ; University of Luxembourg ; Branch Business & Information Systems Engineering of the Fraunhofer FIT, Augsburg, Germany ; FIM Research Center for Information Management, Augsburg, Germany ; University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
Wolf, Linda; Branch Business & Information Systems Engineering of the Fraunhofer FIT, Augsburg, Germany ; FIM Research Center for Information Management, Augsburg, Germany ; University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
T I C L E I N F O, A
External co-authors :
yes
Language :
English
Title :
Customer satisfaction at large charging parks: Expectation-disconfirmation theory for fast charging
Muratori, M., Greene, D., Kontou, E., Dong, J., The role of infrastructure to enable and support electric drive vehicles: a transportation research part D special issue. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ, 89, 2020, 102609.
Xu, L., Yilmaz, H.Ü., Wang, Z., Poganietz, W.-R., Jochem, P., Greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles in Europe considering different charging strategies. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ, 87, 2020, 102534.
Straubinger, A., Verhoef, E.T., de Groot, H.L., Going electric: environmental and welfare impacts of urban ground and air transport. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ, 102, 2022, 103146.
Fluchs, S., The diffusion of electric mobility in the European Union and beyond. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ, 86, 2020, 102462.
Fetene, G.M., Hirte, G., Kaplan, S., Prato, C.G., Tscharaktschiew, S., The economics of workplace charging. Transp Res Part B: Methodol 88 (2016), 93–118.
Tsiropoulos, I., Siskos, P., Capros, P., The cost of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles in the EU in a climate neutrality context: factors influencing investments in 2030 and 2050. Appl Energy, 322, 2022, 119446.
Nastjuk, I., Marrone, M., Kolbe, L.M., Less is sometimes more – The impact of in-vehicle information systems on perceived range stress. Proceedings of the 37th international conference on information systems, 2016.
Fridgen, G., Thimmel, M., Weibelzahl, M., Wolf, L., Smarter charging: power allocation accounting for travel time of electric vehicle drivers. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ, 97, 2021, 102916.
Jabbari P, MacKenzie D. EV Everywhere or EV Anytime? Co-locating multiple DC fast chargers improves both operator cost and access reliability. EVS29 international battery, hybrid and fuel cell electric vehicle symposium 2016:Montreal, Canada.
Neaimeh, M., Salisbury, S.D., Hill, G.A., Blythe, P.T., Scoffield, D.R., Francfort, J.E., Analysing the usage and evidencing the importance of fast chargers for the adoption of battery electric vehicles. Energy Policy 108 (2017), 474–486.
Jochem, P., Szimba, E., Reuter-Oppermann, M., How many fast-charging stations do we need along European highways?. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 73 (2019), 120–129.
Funke, S.Á., Plötz, P., Wietschel, M., Invest in fast-charging infrastructure or in longer battery ranges? A cost-efficiency comparison for Germany. Appl Energy 235 (2019), 888–899.
Halbrügge, S., Wederhake, L., Wolf, L., Reducing the expectation-performance gap in EV fast charging by managing service performance. Nóvoa, H., Drăgoicea, M., Kühl, N., (eds.) Exploring service science. IESS 2020 Lecture notes in business information processing, 2020, Springer, Cham, 47–61.
Oliver, R.L., A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. J Market Res 17:4 (1980), 460–469.
Tse, D.K., Wilton, P.C., Models of consumer satisfaction formation: an extension. J Market Res 25:2 (1988), 204–212.
Carrington, D., Global sales of electric cars accelerate fast in 2020 despite pandemic. February 28, 2021 Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/19/global-sales-of-electric-cars-accelerate-fast-in-2020-despite-covid-pandemic.
Nicholas, M., Estimating electric vehicle charging infrastructure costs across major U.S. metropolitan areas. February 28, 2021 Available from: https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_EV_Charging_Cost_20190813.pdf.
Ormazabal, Ormazabal designs Europe's largest charging park's connection to the grid. April 14, 2023 Available from: https://www.ormazabal.com/en-gb/ormazabal-designs-europes-largest-charging-parks-connection-to-the-grid/.
Sortimo Innovationspark Zusmarshausen GmbH, Intelligente Mobilität. November 10, 2023 Available from: Sortimo Innovationspark Zusmarshausen GmbH.
Colthorpe, A., Tesvolt ‘extremely proud’ to be part of Europe's ‘largest and most innovative’ EV charging park. January 12, 2021 Available from: https://www.energy-storage.news/news/tesvolt-extremely-proud-to-be-part-of-europes-largest-and-most-innovative-e.
Lambert, F., Tesla opens another giant 50-stall Supercharger station – largest in the world. January 12, 2021 Available from: https://electrek.co/2018/01/26/tesla-largest-supercharger-station-world/.
Tesla, Eidsvoll Verk, Norway - Nebbenes. March 23, 2023 Available from: https://www.tesla.com/findus/location/supercharger/eldsvollverknorwaysupercharger.
Ucer, E., Koyuncu, I., Kisacikoglu, M.C., Yavuz, M., Meintz, A., Rames, C., Modeling and analysis of a fast charging station and evaluation of service quality for electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Transp Electrific 5:1 (2019), 215–225.
Crozier, C., Morstyn, T., McCulloch, M., The opportunity for smart charging to mitigate the impact of electric vehicles on transmission and distribution systems. Appl Energy, 268, 2020, 114973.
van der Kam, M., van Sark, W., Smart charging of electric vehicles with photovoltaic power and vehicle-to-grid technology in a microgrid; a case study. Appl Energy 152 (2015), 20–30.
Huang, Q., Jia, Q.-S., Wu, X., Guan, X., Two-phase on-line joint scheduling for welfare maximization of charging station. IEEE Trans Automat Sci Eng, 2023, 1–13.
Casini, M., Vicino, A., Zanvettor, G.G., A receding horizon approach to peak power minimization for EV charging stations in the presence of uncertainty. Int J Elect Power Energy Syst, 126, 2021, 106567.
Tang, Q., Wang, K., Yang, K., Luo, Y., Congestion-balanced and welfare-maximized charging strategies for electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Parallel Distrib Syst 31:12 (2020), 2882–2895.
Lu, Z., Shi, L., Geng, L., Zhang, J., Li, X., Guo, X., Non-cooperative game pricing strategy for maximizing social welfare in electrified transportation networks. Int J Elect Power Energy Syst, 130, 2021, 106980.
Sen, A., Chapter 22 social choice theory. 1986, Elsevier, 1073–1181.
Bentham, J., An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. 1907, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1789.
Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt, Neuzulassungen Segmente 2017–2021. April 14, 2023 Available from: https://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Neuzulassungen/Segmente/n_segmente_node.html?yearFilter=2021.
Gnann, T., Funke, S., Jakobsson, N., Plötz, P., Sprei, F., Bennehag, A., Fast charging infrastructure for electric vehicles: Today's situation and future needs. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 62 (2018), 314–329.
Zhou, B., Chen, G., Song, Q., Dong, Z.Y., Robust chance-constrained programming approach for the planning of fast-charging stations in electrified transportation networks. Appl Energy, 262, 2020, 114480.
Knupfer, S., Noffsinger, J., Sahdev, S., How battery storage can help charge the electric-vehicle market. April 03, 2018 Available from: http://bit.ly/2BIgiXT.
Rosenberg, L.J., Czepiel, J.A., A marketing approach for customer retention. J Consumer Market 1:2 (1984), 45–51.
Thompson, D.A., Yarnold, P.R., Relating patient satisfaction to waiting time perceptions and expectations: the disconfirmation paradigm. Acad Emerg Med Off J Soc Acad Emerg Med 2:12 (1995), 1057–1062.
Cassidy-Smith, T.N., Baumann, B.M., Boudreaux, E.D., The disconfirmation paradigm: throughput times and emergency department patient satisfaction. J Emerg Med 32:1 (2007), 7–13.
Davis, M.M., Heineke, J., How disconfirmation, perception and actual waiting times impact customer satisfaction. Int J Service Industry Mgmt 9:1 (1998), 64–73.
Lin, Y.-T., Xia, K.-N., Bei, L.-T., Customer's perceived value of waiting time for service events. J Consum Behav 14:1 (2015), 28–40.
Thomson, W., How to divide when there isn't enough: From Aristotle, the Talmud, and Maimonides to the axiomatics of resource allocation. 2019, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Zeballos, M., Ferragut, A., Paganini, F., Proportional fairness for EV charging in overload. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 10:6 (2019), 6792–6801.
Hussain, A., Musilek, P., Fairness and utilitarianism in allocating energy to EVs during power contingencies using modified division rules. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 13:3 (2022), 1444–1456.
Meyer, R.J., A model of multiattribute judgments under attribute uncertainty and informational constraint. J Market Res 18:4 (1981), 428–441.
Sadeghian, O., Oshnoei, A., Mohammadi-ivatloo, B., Vahidinasab, V., Anvari-Moghaddam, A., A comprehensive review on electric vehicles smart charging: solutions, strategies, technologies, and challenges. J Energy Stor, 54, 2022, 105241.
Kumar, K.N., Sivaneasan, B., So, P.L., Impact of priority criteria on electric vehicle charge scheduling. IEEE Trans Transp Electrific 1:3 (2015), 200–210.
Hajforoosh, S., Masoum, M.A., Islam, S.M., Online optimal variable charge-rate coordination of plug-in electric vehicles to maximize customer satisfaction and improve grid performance. Electr Pow Syst Res 141 (2016), 407–420.
Kajanova, M., Bracinik, P., Social welfare-based charging of electric vehicles in the microgrids fed by renewables. Int J Elect Power Energy Syst, 138, 2022, 107974.
Stein, S., Gerding, E., Robu, V., Jennings, N.R., A model-based online mechanism with pre-commitment and its application to electric vehicle charging. Proceedings of the 11th international conference on autonomous agents and multiagent systems, 2012, 669–676.
Rahimi-Eichi, H., Chow, M.-Y., Auction-based energy management system of a large-scale PHEV municipal parking deck. IEEE Energy Conv Cong Expos, 2012, 1811–1818.
Zhao, T., Pan, X., Yao, S., Wang, P., Stackelberg game based energy and reserve management for a fast electric vehicle charging station. IEEE Energy Conv Cong Exposition, 2017, 1417–1424.
Johnson, M.D., Anderson, E.W., Fornell, C., Rational and adaptive performance expectations in a customer satisfaction framework. J Consum Res, 21(4), 1995, 695.
Mill, J.S., Utilitarianism. 1863, Parker, Son & Bourn, Peterborough, Canada.
Debreu, G., Representation of a preference ordering by a numerical function. Thrall, R.M., Coombs, C.H., Davis, R.L., (eds.) Decision processes, 1954, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Electric Vehicle Database, Alle Fahrzeuge: Segment. April 14, 2023 Available from: www.ev-database.de.
Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P.L., Handy, S.L., Neighborhood design and vehicle type choice: evidence from northern California. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 11:2 (2006), 133–145.
Choo, S., Mokhtarian, P.L., What type of vehicle do people drive? The role of attitude and lifestyle in influencing vehicle type choice. Transp Res Part A: Policy Pract 38:3 (2004), 201–222.
Nykvist, B., Nilsson, M., Rapidly falling costs of battery packs for electric vehicles. Nat Clim Change 5:4 (2015), 329–332.
Berckmans, G., Messagie, M., Smekens, J., Omar, N., Vanhaverbeke, L., Cost projection of state of the art lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles up to 2030. Energies, 10(9), 2017, 1314.
Lutsey, N., Nicholas, M., Update on electric vehicle costs in the United States through 2030. 2019.
Deng, J., Bae, C., Denlinger, A., Miller, T., Electric vehicles batteries: requirements and challenges. Joule 4:3 (2020), 511–515.
Bilash, K., Electric vehicle batteries: Li-ion and beyond, challenges and advancements. J Undergraduate Res 9:1 (2016), 25–32.
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), Verordnung über technische Mindestanforderungen an den sicheren und interoperablen Aufbau und Betrieb von öffentlich zugänglichen Ladepunkten für Elektromobile. April 14, 2023 Available from: https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/V/verordnung-ladeeinrichtungen-elektromobile-kabinettbeschluss.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3.
eLoaded GmbH, DC Cube 140kW the Power Utility up to 420kW. 2023.
Lapp, U.I., GmbH. Safe charging with direct current. April 14, 2023 Available from: https://lappconnect.lappgroup.com/en/projects/safe-charging-with-direct-current/.
Domínguez-Navarro, J.A., Dufo-López, R., Yusta-Loyo, J.M., Artal-Sevil, J.S., Bernal-Agustín, J.L., Design of an electric vehicle fast-charging station with integration of renewable energy and storage systems. Int J Elect Power Energy Syst 105 (2019), 46–58.
Liberati, F., Di Giorgio, A., Koch, G., Optimal stochastic control of energy storage system based on pontryagin minimum principle for flattening PEV fast charging in a service area. IEEE Control Syst Lett 6 (2022), 247–252.
Wang, L., Qin, Z., Slangen, T., Bauer, P., van Wijk, T., Grid impact of electric vehicle fast charging stations: trends, standards, issues and mitigation measures - an overview. IEEE Open J Power Electron 2 (2021), 56–74.
Khan, W., Ahmad, F., Alam, M.S., Fast EV charging station integration with grid ensuring optimal and quality power exchange. Eng Sci Technol Int J 22:1 (2019), 143–152.
Ahmad, A., Qin, Z., Wijekoon, T., Bauer, P., An overview on medium voltage grid integration of ultra-fast charging stations: current status and future trends. IEEE Open J Ind Electron Soc 3 (2022), 420–447.
Seeto, D., Woo, C.K., Horowitz, I., Time-of-use rates vs. Hopkinson tariffs redux: an analysis of the choice of rate structures in a regulated electricity distribution company. Energy Econ 19:2 (1997), 169–185.
Woo, C.K., Sreedharan, P., Hargreaves, J., Kahrl, F., Wang, J., Horowitz, I., A review of electricity product differentiation. Appl Energy 114 (2014), 262–272.
Negarestani, S., Fotuhi-Firuzabad, M., Rastegar, M., Rajabi-Ghahnavieh, A., Optimal sizing of storage system in a fast charging station for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Transp Electrific 2:4 (2016), 443–453.
Haupt, L., Schöpf, M., Wederhake, L., Weibelzahl, M., The influence of electric vehicle charging strategies on the sizing of electrical energy storage systems in charging hub microgrids. Appl Energy, 273, 2020, 115231.
Kapustin, N.O., Grushevenko, D.A., Long-term electric vehicles outlook and their potential impact on electric grid. Energy Policy, 137, 2020, 111103.
Baumgarte, F., Dombetzki, L., Kecht, C., Wolf, L., Keller, R., AI-based decision support for sustainable operation of electric vehicle charging parks. Bui, T., (eds.) Proceedings of the 54th Hawaii international conference on system sciences: Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2021.
Pruyn, A., Smidts, A., Effects of waiting on the satisfaction with the service: beyond objective time measures. Int J Res Market 15:4 (1998), 321–334.
Maister, D.H., The psychology of waiting lines. Czepiel, J.A., Solomon, M.R., Suprenant, C.F., (eds.) The service encounter, 1985, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 113–123.
