Rapid Automatized Naming and Explicit Phonological Processing in Children With Developmental Dyslexia: A Study With Portuguese-Speaking Children in Brazil.
da Silva, Patrícia Botelho; ENGEL DE ABREU, Pascale; Laurence, Paulo Guirroet al.
Brazilian Portuguese; classification and regression tree analysis; developmental dyslexia; explicit phonological processing; rapid automatized naming; Psychology (all); General Psychology
Abstract :
[en] Many studies have shown that children with reading difficulties present deficits in rapid automatized naming (RAN) and phonological awareness skills. The aim of this study was to examine RAN and explicit phonological processing in Brazilian Portuguese-speaking children with developmental dyslexia and to explore the ability of RAN to discriminate between children with and without dyslexia. Participants were 30 children with a clinical diagnosis of dyslexia established by the Brazilian Dyslexia Association and 30 children with typical development. Children were aged between 7 and 12, and groups were matched for chronological age and sex. They completed a battery of tests that are commonly used in Brazil for diagnosing dyslexia, consisting of the Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children (WISC-IV) as well as tests of single word and non-word reading, RAN, and the profile of phonological abilities test. Results indicate that the cognitive profile of this group of children, with a clinical diagnosis of dyslexia, showed preserved skills in the four subscales of the WISC-IV (verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed) and on the profile of phonological abilities test. Groups significantly differed on the reading tests (word and non-word) and RAN measures, with medium to large effect sizes for RAN. Classification and regression tree analysis revealed that RAN was a good predictor for dyslexia diagnosis, with an overall classification accuracy rate of 88.33%.
Disciplines :
Treatment & clinical psychology
Author, co-author :
da Silva, Patrícia Botelho; Social and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Developmental Disorders Program, Center for Health and Biological Science, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil ; Institute for Research on Multilingualism, University of Luxembourg, Belval, Luxembourg
ENGEL DE ABREU, Pascale ; University of Luxembourg > Faculty of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences (FHSE) > Department of Humanities (DHUM) > Multilingualism
Laurence, Paulo Guirro; Social and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Developmental Disorders Program, Center for Health and Biological Science, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil
Nico, Maria Ângela Nogueira; Brazilian Dyslexia Association (ABD, Associação Brazileira de Dislexia), São Paulo, Brazil
Simi, Luiz Gustavo Varejão; Brazilian Dyslexia Association (ABD, Associação Brazileira de Dislexia), São Paulo, Brazil
Tomás, Rute C; Institute for Research on Multilingualism, University of Luxembourg, Belval, Luxembourg
Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho; Social and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Developmental Disorders Program, Center for Health and Biological Science, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil
External co-authors :
yes
Language :
English
Title :
Rapid Automatized Naming and Explicit Phonological Processing in Children With Developmental Dyslexia: A Study With Portuguese-Speaking Children in Brazil.
The study was supported by research grants from the São Paulo Research Foundation, FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo), awarded to PS (N 2015/22506-9) and PL (N 2018/09654-7) and a research grant from the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico), awarded to EM (N 311479/2015-4).Funding. The study was supported by research grants from the S?o Paulo Research Foundation, FAPESP (Funda??o de Amparo ? Pesquisa do Estado de S?o Paulo), awarded to PS (N 2015/22506-9) and PL (N 2018/09654-7) and a research grant from the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico), awarded to EM (N 311479/2015-4).
Ackerman P. T., Holloway C. A., Youngdahl P. L., Dykman R. A., (2001). The double-deficit theory of reading disability does not fit all. Learn. Disabil. Res. Pract. 16 152–160. 10.1111/0938-8982.00016
Alves L. M., Siqueira C. M., Ferreira M. C. M., Alves J. F. M., Lodi D. F., Bicalho L., et al. (2016). Rapid naming in brazilian students with dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Front. Psychol. 7:21. 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00021 26858672
American Psychiatric Association [APA] (2014). Manual Diagnóstico e Estatístico de Transtornos Mentais: DSM-5 [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5]. Porto Alegre: Artmed.
Anthony J. L., Francis D. J., (2005). Development of phonological awareness. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 14 255–259. 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00376.x
Araújo S., Faísca L., (2019). A meta-analytic review of naming-speed deficits in developmental dyslexia. Sci. Stud. Read. 23 349–368. 10.1080/10888438.2019.1572758
Araújo S., Pacheco A., Faísca L., Petersson K. M., Reis A., (2010). Visual rapid naming and phonological abilities: different subtypes in dyslexic children. Int. J. Psychol. 45 443–452. 10.1080/00207594.2010.499949 22044084
Araújo S., Reis A., Petersson K. M., Faísca L., (2015). Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: a meta-analysis. J. Educ. Psychol. 107 868–883. 10.1037/edu0000006 27198479
Arduini R. G., Capellini S. A., Ciasca A. M., (2006). Estudo comparativo das avaliações neuropsicológicas e de neuroimagem em crianças com dislexia. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr. 64 369–375.
Asadi I. A., Shany M. L., (2018). Examining the double-deficit hypothesis in vowelized–transparent Arabic in a national representative sample of Grades 3 and 4. Dyslexia 24 234–249. 10.1002/dys.1594
Badian N. A., (1997). Dyslexia and the double deficit hypothesis. Annu. Dyslexia 47 69–87. 10.1007/s11881-997-0021-y
Bell S. M., McCallum R. S., Cox E. A., (2003). Toward a research-based assessment of dyslexia: using cognitive measures to identify reading disabilities. J. Learn. Disabil. 36 505–516. 10.1177/00222194030360060201 15493433
Benjamini Y., Hochberg Y., (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B 57 289–300. 10.2307/2346101
Bicalho L. G. R., Alves L. M., (2010). A nomeação seriada rápida em escolares com e sem queixas de problemas de aprendizagem em escola pública e particular. Rev. CEFAC 12 608–616. 10.1590/S1516-18462010005000018
Bishop D. V., Snowling M. J., (2004). Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: same or different? Psychol. Bull. 130 858–886. 10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.858 15535741
Bowyer-Crane C., Snowling M. J., Duff F. J., Fieldsend E., Carroll J. M., Miles J., et al. (2008). Improving early language and literacy skills: differential effects of an oral language versus a phonology with reading intervention. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 49 422–432. 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01849.x
Brady S. A., Shankweiler D. P., (eds) (1991). Phonological Processes in Literacy: A Tribute to Isabelle Y. Liberman. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
BRASIL (2018). Ministério da Educação. Base Nacional Comum Curricular. Brasília: BRASIL.
BRASIL (2019). Ministério da Educação and Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Educacionais Anísio Teixeira. Relatório Nacional no Pisa 2018: versão preliminar. Brasília: BRASIL.
Breiman L., Friedman J., Stone C. J., Olshen R. A., (2017). Classification and Regression Trees. Boca Raton, FL: CRC press.
Capellini S. A., Conrado T. L. B. C., (2009). Desempenho de escolares com e sem dificuldades de aprendizagem de ensino particular em habilidade fonológica, nomeação rápida, leitura e escrita. [Performance of students with and without learning difficulties in phonological awareness, rapid naming, reading and writing from the private education]. Rev. CEFAC 11 183–193. 10.1590/S1516-18462009005000002
Capellini S. A., Germano G. D., Cardoso A. C. V., (2008). Relação entre habilidades auditivas e fonológicas em crianças com dislexia do desenvolvimento Habilidades auditiva-fonológica em disléxicos [Relationship between auditory and phonological skills in children with developmental dyslexia Auditory-phonological skills in dyslexics]. Rev. Semestral Assoc. Bras. Psicolo. Escolar Educ. 12 235–253.
Capellini S. A., Lanza S. C., (2010). Desempenho de escolares em consciência fonológica, nomeação rápida, leitura e escrita [Performance of students in phonological awareness, rapid naming, reading and writing]. Pró Fono Rev. Atualização Cient. 22 239–244.
Capellini S. A., Padula N. A. M. R., Santos L. C. A., Lourenceti M. D., Carrenho E. H., Ribeiro L. A., (2007). Desempenho em consciência fonológica, memória operacional, leitura e escrita na dislexia familial [Performance in phonological awareness, working memory, reading and writing in familial dyslexia]. Pró Fono Rev. Atualização Cient. 19 374–380.
Capovilla A. G. S., Capovilla F. C., (2003). Alfabetização: Método Fônico, 2. Edn. São Paulo: Memnon, Fapesp, CNPq.
Capovilla A. G. S., Smythe I., Capovilla F. C., Everatt J., (2001). Adaptação brasileira do International Dyslexia Test: perfil cognitivo de crianças com escrita pobre. Temas Sobre Desenvolv. 10 30–37.
Caravolas M., Lervåg A., Mousikou P., Efrim C., Litavsky M., Onochie-Quintanilla E., et al. (2012). Common patterns of prediction of literacy development in different alphabetic orthographies. Psychol. Sci. 23 678–686. 10.1177/0956797611434536 22555967
Caravolas M., Volín J., Hulme C., (2005). Phoneme awareness is a key component of alphabetic literacy skills in consistent and inconsistent orthographies: evidence from Czech and English children. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 92 107–139. 10.1016/j.jecp.2005.04.003 16038927
Cardoso-Martins C., (2005). “Beginning reading acquisition in Brazilian Portuguese,” in Handbook of Orthography and Literacy, eds Joshi R. M., Aaron P. G., (New York, NY: Routledge).
Carvalho I. A. M., Alvarez A. M. M. A., Caetano A. L., (1998). Perfil de Habilidades Fonológicas. São Paulo: Via Lettera Editora e livraria Ltda.
Castles A., Coltheart M., (1993). Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition 47 149–180. 10.1016/0010-0277(93)90003- 8324999
Catts H. W., (1991). Early identification of dyslexia: evidence from a follow-up study of speech-language impaired children. Ann. Dyslexia 41 163–177. 10.1007/BF02648084 24233763
Catts H. W., Fey M. E., Zhang X., Tomblin J. B., (2001). Estimating the risk of future reading difficulties in kindergarten children. Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch. 32 38–50. 10.1044/0161-1461(2001/004) 27764435
Clarke P., Hulme C., Snowling M., (2005). Individual differences in RAN and reading: a response timing analysis. J. Res. Read. 28 73–86. 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2005.00255.x 19019349
Clayton F. J., West G., Searsa C., Hulme C., Lervåg A., (2020). A longitudinal study of early reading development: letter-sound knowledge, phoneme awareness and RAN, but not letter-sound integration, predict variations in reading development. Sci. Stud. Read. 24 91–107. 10.1080/10888438.2019.1622546
Coltheart M., Masterson J., Byng S., Prior M., Riddoch J., (1983). Surface dyslexia. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 35 469–495. 10.1080/14640748308402483
Cronin V. S., (2011). RAN and double-deficit theory. J. Learn. Disabil. 46 182–190. 10.1177/0022219411413544 21772057
D’Angiulli A., Siegel L. S., (2003). Cognitive functioning as measure by the WISC-R: Do children with learning disabilities have distinctive patterns of performance? J. Learn. Disabil. 36 48–58. 10.1177/00222194030360010601 15490891
De Clercq-Quaegebeur M., Casalis S., Lemaitre M. P., Bourgois B., Getto M., Vallée L., (2010). Neuropsychological profile on the WISC-IV of french children with dyslexia. J. Learn. Disabil. 43 563–574. 10.1177/0022219410375000
de Jong P. F., van der Leij A., (2003). Developmental changes in the manifestation of a phonological deficit in dyslexic children learning to read a regular orthography. J. Educ. Psychol. 95 22–40. 10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.22
Deuschle V. P., Cechella C., (2009). O déficit em consciência fonológica e sua relação com a dislexia: diagnóstico e intervenção [The deficit in phonological awareness and its relation with dyslexia: diagnosis and intervention]. Rev. CEFAC 11 194–200.
Dourado M. B., Schmid E., Chiappetta A. L. M. L., (2005). Consciência fonológica em disléxicos [Phonological awareness in dyslexics]. Rev. CEFAC 7 415–418.
Engel, de Abreu P. M. J., Gathercole S. E., (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition. J. Educ. Psychol. 104 974–986. 10.1037/a0028390
Escribano C. L., (2007). Evaluation of the double-deficit hypothesis subtype classification of readers in Spanish. J. Learn. Disabil. 40 319–330. 10.1177/00222194070400040301 17713131
Fletcher J. M., (2009). Dyslexia: the evolution of a scientific concept. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 15 501–508. 10.1017/S1355617709090900 19573267
Fricke S., Szczerbinski M., Stackhouse J., Fox-Boyer A. V., (2008). Predicting individual differences in early literacy acquisition in German: the role of speech and language processing skills and letter knowledge. Writ. Lang. Lit. 11 103–146. 10.1075/wll.11.2.02fri
Georgiou G., Papadopoulos T. C., Fella A., Parrila R., (2012). Rapid naming speed components and reading development in a consistent orthography. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 112 1–17. 10.1016/j.jecp.2011.11.006 22297121
Germano G. D., Pinheiro F. H., Capellini S. A., (2009). Desempenho de escolares com dislexia do desenvolvimento em tarefas fonológicas e silábicas [Performance of students with developmental dyslexia in phonological and syllabic tasks]. Rev. CEFAC 11 213–220. 10.1590/S1516-18462008005000004
Germano G. D., Pinheiro F. H., Padula N. A. M. R., Lorencett M. D., Capellini S. A., (2012). Desempenho em consciência fonológica, nomeação rápida, leitura e escrita em escolares com dislexia secundária a retardo mental e com bom desempenho acadêmico [Performance in phonological awareness, rapid naming, reading and writing in students with secondary dyslexia to mental retardation and with good academic performance]. Rev. CEFAC 14 799–807. 10.1590/S1516-18462011005000140
Giofrè D., Toffalini E., Provazza S., Calcagnì A., Altoè G., Roberts D. J., (2019). Are children with developmental dyslexia all the same? A cluster analysis with more than 300 cases. Dyslexia 25 284–295. 10.1002/dys.1629
Griffiths Y. M., Snowling M. J., (2002). Predictors of exception word and nonword reading in dyslexic children: the severity hypothesis. J. Educ. Psychol. 94 34–43. 10.1037/0022-0663.94.1.34
Handler S. M., Fierson W. M., The Section on Ophthalmology, Council on Children with Disabilities, American Academy of Ophthalmology, American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology, and Strabismus, and American Association of Certified Orthoptists (2011). Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision. Pediatrics 127:e818-56. 10.1542/peds.2010-3670
Hatcher P. J., Hulme C., Snowling M. J., (2004). Explicit phoneme training combined with phonic reading instruction helps young children at risk of reading failure. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 45 338–358. 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00225.x 14982247
Hogan T. P., Catts H. W., Little T. D., (2005). The relationship between phonological awareness and reading: implications for the assessment of phonological awareness. Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch. 36 285–293. 10.1044/0161-1461(2005/029) 16389701
Holmes Finch W., Bolin J. H., Kelley K., (2014). Group membership prediction when known groups consist of unknown subgroups: a Monte Carlo comparison of methods. Front. Psychol. 5:337. 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00337
Hulme C., Snowling M. J., (2009). Developmental Disorders of Language, Learning and Cognition. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
IBM Corp. Released (2013). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
Jafari M., Ansari-Pour N., (2019). Why, when and how to adjust your P values? Cell J. 20 604–607. 10.22074/cellj.2019.5992 30124010
Jones M. W., Ashby J., Branigan H. P., (2013). Dyslexia and fluency: parafoveal and foveal influences on rapid automatized naming. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 39 554–567. 10.1037/a0029710
Justi C. N. G., Cunha N., (2016). Tarefas de Nomeação Seriada Rápida: rastreando a Dificuldade de Leitura [Rapid Automatized Naming Tasks: screening Reading Difficulty]. Psicologia 32 1–9. 10.1590/0102.3772e32425
Kirby J. R., Georgiou G. K., Martinussen R., Parrila R., (2010). Naming speed and reading: from prediction to instruction. Read. Res. Q. 45 341–362. 10.1598/RRQ.45.3.4
Kirby J. R., Parrila R. K., Pfeiffer S. L., (2003). Naming speed and phonological awareness as predictors of reading development. J. Educ. Psychol. 95 453–464. 10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.453
Landerl K., Freudenthaler H. H., Heene M., De Jong P. F., Desrochers A., Manolitsis G., et al. (2019). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming as longitudinal predictors of reading in five alphabetic orthographies with varying degrees of consistency. Sci. Stud. Read. 23 220–234. 10.1080/10888438.2018.1510936
Landerl K., Ramus F., Moll K., Lyytinen H., Leppänen P. H., Lohvansuu K., et al. (2013). Predictors of developmental dyslexia in European orthographies with varying complexity. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 54 686–694. 10.1111/jcpp.12029 23227813
Landerl K., Wimmer H., (2000). Deficits in phoneme segmentation are not the core problem of dyslexia: evidence from German and English children. Appl. Psycholinguist. 21 243–262. 10.1017/S0142716400002058
Lervåg A., Hulme C., (2009). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) taps a mechanism that places constraints on the development of early reading fluency. Psychol. Sci. 20 1040–1048. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02405.x 19619178
Lewis R. J., (2004). An Introduction to Classification and Regression Tree (CART) Analysis. Available online at: http://www.saem.org/download/lewis1.pdf (accessed April 19, 2004).
Li R. H., Belford G. G., (2002). “Instability of decision tree classification algorithms,” in Proceedings of the Eighth ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, Edmonton, 570–575. 10.1145/775047.775131
Lima R. F., Salgado C. A., Ciasca S. M., (2008). Desempenho neuropsicológico e fonoaudiológico de crianças com dislexia do desenvolvimento [Neuropsychological and speech therapy performance of children with developmental dyslexia]. Rev. Psicopedag. 25 226–235.
Lovett M. V., Steinbach K. A., Frijters J. C., (2000). Remediating the core deficits of developmental reading disability: a double-deficit perspective. J. Learn. Disabil. 33 334–358. 10.1177/002221940003300406 15493096
Manis F. R., Doi L. M., Bhadha B., (2000). Naming speed, phonological awareness, and orthographic knowledge in second graders. J. Learn. Disabil. 33 325–333. 10.1177/002221940003300405 15493095
Maughan B., Messer J., Collishaw S., Pickles A., Snowling M., Yule W., et al. (2009). Persistence of literacy problems: spelling in adolescence and at mid-life. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 50 893–901. 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02079.x 19490310
Mayringer H., Wimmer H., (2000). Pseudoname learning by German-speaking children with dyslexia: evidence for a phonological learning deficit. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 75 116–133. 10.1006/jecp.1999.2525 10620376
McBride-Chang C., Lam F., Lam C., Doo S., Wong S. W., Chow Y. Y., (2008). Word recognition and cognitive profiles of Chinese pre-school children at risk for dyslexia through language delay or familial history of dyslexia. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 49 211–218. 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01837.x
McDonald R. P., (1999). Test Theory: A Unified Treatment. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Melby-Lervåg M., Lyster S. A., Hulme C., (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 138 322–352. 10.1037/a0026744 22250824
Menghini D., Finzi A., Benassi M., Bolzani R., Facoetti A., Giovagnoli S., et al. (2010). Different underlying neurocognitive deficits in developmental dyslexia: a comparative study. Neuropsychologia 48 863–872. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.11.003 19909762
Michalick-Triginelli M. F., Cardoso-Martins C., (2015). The role of phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming in the prediction of reading difficulties in Portuguese. Psicologia 28 823–828. 10.1590/1678-7153.201528421
Muter V., Hulme C., Snowling M. J., Stevenson J., (2004). Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: evidence from a longitudinal study. Dev. Psychol. 40 665–681. 10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.665 15355157
National Institute for Literacy (2008). Developing Early Literacy: Report of the Early Literacy Panel: A Scientific Synthesis of Early Literacy Development and Implications for Intervention. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
Norton E. S., Black J. M., Stanley L. M., Tanaka H., Gabrieli J. D., Sawyer C., et al. (2014). Functional neuroanatomical evidence for the double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia 61 235–246. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.06.015 24953957
Norton E. S., Wolf M., (2012). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 63 427–452. 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100431 21838545
OECD Programme for International Student Assessment [PISA] (2019). PISA 2018 Results (Volume I) What Students Know and Can Do. Paris: OECD.
Papadopoulos T. C., Georgiou G. K., Kendeou P., (2009). Investigating the double-deficit hypothesis in Greek. J. Learn. Disabil. 42 528–547. 10.1177/0022219409338745 19723979
Pennington B., (2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition 101 385–413. 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008 16844106
Pennington B. F., (2009). Diagnosing Learning Disorders: A Neuropsychological Framework, 2nd Edn. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Pennington B. F., Cardoso-Martins C., Green P. A., Lefly D. L., (2001). Comparing the phonological and double deficit hypotheses for developmental dyslexia. Read. Writ. Interdiscip. J. 14 707–755. 10.1023/A:1012239018038
Pennington B. F., Lefly D. L., (2001). Early reading development in children at family risk for dyslexia. Child Dev. 72 816–833. 10.1111/1467-8624.00317 11405584
Peterson R. L., Pennington B. F., (2012). Developmental dyslexia. Lancet 379 1997–2007. 10.1016/S0140- 22513218
Protopapas A., Altani A., Georgiou G. K., (2013). Development of serial processing in reading and rapid naming. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 116 914–929. 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.08.004 24077466
R Core Team (2014). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Ramus F., Rosen S., Dakin S. C., Day B. L., Castellote J. M., White S., et al. (2003). Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain 126 841–865. 10.1093/brain/awg076 12615643
Rothou K. M., Padeliadu S., Sideridis G. D., (2013). Predicting early reading in Greek: the contribution of phonological awareness and non-phonological language skills. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 93 1504–1509. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.072
Rueda F. J. M., Noronha A. P. P., Sisto F. F., Santos A. A. A., Castro N. R., (2013). Escala Wechsler de Inteligência para Crianças - WISC-IV. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo.
Schatschneider C., Carlson C. D., Francis D. J., Foorman B. F., Fletcher J. M., (2002). Relationship of rapid automatized naming and phonological awareness in early reading development: implications for the double-deficit hypothesis. J. Learn. Disabil. 35 245–256. 10.1177/002221940203500306 15493321
Scliar-Cabral L., (2003). Princípios do Sistema Alfabético do Português do Brasil. São Paulo: Contexto.
Seymour P. H. K., Aro M., Erskine J. M., (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. Br. J. Psychol. 94 143–174. 10.1348/000712603321661859
Silva C., Cunha V. L. O., Pinheiro F. H., Capellini S. A., (2012). Nomeação rápida, leitura e compreensão em escolares com dificuldades de aprendizagem [Rapid naming, reading and comprehension in students with learning difficulties]. J. Soc. Bras. Fonoaudiol. 24 355–360.
Silva P. B., da Mecca T., de Macedo E. C., (2018). TENA Teste de Nomeação Automática, 1st Edn. São Paulo: Hogrefe CETEPP.
Snowling M., (2001). From language to reading and dyslexia. Dyslexia 7 37–46. 10.1002/dys.185
Snowling M. J., (2000). Dyslexia, 2nd Edn. Oxford: Blackwell.
Snowling M. J., (2008). Specific disorders and broader phenotypes: the case of dyslexia. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 61 142–156. 10.1080/17470210701508830 18038345
Snowling M. J., Hulme C., (2012). Annual Research Review: the nature and classification of reading disorders – a commentary on proposals for DSM-5. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 53 593–607. 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x 22141434
Stanovich K. E., (1992). “Speculations on the causes and consequences of individual differences in early reading acquisition,” in Reading Acquisition, eds Gough P. B., Ehri L. C., Treiman R., (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum), 307–342.
Stanovich K. E., Siegel L. S., (1994). Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: a regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model. J. Educ. Psychol. 86 24–53. 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.24
Stappen C. V., Reybroeck M. V., (2018). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming are independent phonological competencies with specific impacts on word reading and spelling: an intervention study. Front. Psychol. 9:320. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00320 29593618
Sucena A., Castro S. L., Seymour P., (2009). Developmental dyslexia in an orthography of intermediate depth: the case of European Portuguese. Read. Writ. 22 791–810. 10.1007/s11145-008-9156-4 25530196
Swets J., (1988). Measuring the accuracy of diagnostic systems. Science 240 1285–1293. 10.1126/science.3287615 3287615
Tamboer P., Vorst H. C. M., Oort F. J., (2016). Five describing factors of dyslexia. J. Learn. Disabil. 49 466–483. 10.1177/0022219414558123 25398549
Tattar P. M., (2017). Statistical Application Development with R and Python, Second Edn. Birmingham: Packt Publishing, 432.
Therneau T., Atkinson B., (2019). rpart: Recursive Partitioning and Regression Trees. R package version 4.1-15. Available online at: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rpart (accessed March 24, 2020).
Torgesen J. K., (1999). “Assessment and instruction for phonemic awareness and word recognition skills,” in Language and reading disabilities, eds Catts H. W., Kamhi A. G., (Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon), 128–153.
Torppa M., Parrila R., Niemi P., Lerkkanen M.-K., Poikkeus A. M., Nurmi J. E., (2013). The double-deficit hypothesis in the transparent Finnish orthography: a longitudinal study from kindergarten to Grade 2. Read. Writ. 26 1353–1380. 10.1007/s11145-012-9423-2
Vaessen A., Gerretsen P., Blomert L., (2009). Naming problems do not reflect a second independent core deficit in dyslexia: double deficit explored. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 103 202–222. 10.1016/j.jecp.2008.12.004
Vellutino F. R., Fletcher J. M., Snowling M. J., Scanlon D. M., (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry. 45 2–40. 10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x 14959801
Vloedgraven J. M. T., Verhoeven L., (2007). Screening of phonological awareness in the early elementary grades: an IRT approach. Ann. Dyslexia 57 33–50. 10.1007/s11881-007-0001-2 17849215
Vukovic R. K., Siegel L. S., (2006). The Double-Deficit Hypothesis. J. Learn. Disabil. 39 25–47. 10.1177/00222194060390010401 16512081
Wagner R. K., Torgesen J. K., (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychol. Bull. 101 192–212. 10.1037//0033-2909.101.2.192 22209402
Wagner R. K., Torgesen J. K., Rashotte C. A., Hecht S. A., Barker T. A., Burgess S. R., et al. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: a 5-year longitudinal study. Dev. Psychol. 33 468–479. 10.1037/0012-1649.33.3.468 9149925
Wechsler D., (2013). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edn. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo.
Wimmer H., Mayringer H., Landerl K., (2000). The double-deficit hypothesis and difficulties in learning to read a regular orthography. J. Educ. Psychol. 92 668–680. 10.10371/0022-0663.92.4.668
Wolf M., Bowers P. G., (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. J. Educ. Psychol. 91 415–438. 10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.415
Wolf M., Denckla M. B., (2005). Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid Alternating Test. Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
Wolf M., O’Rourke A. G., Gidney C., Lovett M., Cirino P., Morris R., (2002). The second deficit: an investigation of the independence of phonological and naming-speed deficits in developmental dyslexia. Read. Writ. Interdiscip. J. 15 43–72. 10.1023/A:1013816320290
Zeffiro T., Eden G., (2000). The neural basis of developmental dyslexia. Ann. Dyslexia 50 1–30. 10.1007/s11881-000-0015-5 20563778
Ziegler J. C., Goswami U., (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading languages: a psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychol. Bull. 131 3–29. 10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3across 15631549
Zoubrinetzky R., Bielle F., Valdois S., (2014). New insights on developmental dyslexia subtypes: heterogeneity of mixed reading profiles. PLoS One 9:e99337. 10.1371/journal.pone.0099337 24918441
