[en] Playing non-violent video games has been shown to reduce perceived levels of stress (Pallavicini et al., 2021). Does this effect also apply to violent game content? As findings suggest a particular preference for such games among people with certain personality traits, such as the Dark Tetrad (i.e., Machiavellianism, everyday sadism, subclinical psychopathy, and narcissism; e.g., Bonfá-Araujo et al., 2022; Greitemeyer, 2015; Greitemeyer & Sagioglou, 2017) do these traits influence the stress they feel? In the present lab experiment, potential stress-reducing effects of violent and non-violent video games were compared to a control condition (solving a jigsaw puzzle). Cortisol levels, heart rate variability (HRV), and self-reported stress levels were assessed before, during, and after gameplay. Irrespective of game condition, playing video game passages decreased cortisol levels, a typical indicator of stress. In addition, playing violent games led to a significant decrease in certain HRV indicators (i.e., ratio of low frequency power to high-frequency power), thus providing additional support for stress relief. In contrast, trying to solve a jigsaw puzzle did not result in stress reduction. Most results involving the Dark Tetrad traits showed null findings. However, participants with greater Dark Tetrad expressions experienced more relaxation after violent gameplay while showing greater stress reaction after trying to solve a jigsaw puzzle. The present results indicate that playing violent or non-violent video games can lead to physiological relaxation-an important finding for future research on the potential of video games for stress relief interventions.
Disciplines :
Social & behavioral sciences, psychology: Multidisciplinary, general & others
Author, co-author :
WAGENER, Gary Lee ; University of Luxembourg > Faculty of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences (FHSE) > Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences (DBCS) > Health and Behaviour
Melzer, André; University of Luxembourg, Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, 11 Porte des Sciences, Esch-sur-Alzette L-4366, Luxembourg
External co-authors :
no
Language :
English
Title :
Self-reported and physiological stress indicators and the moderating role of the Dark Tetrad in violent and non-violent gaming.
The present study was financed by The FNR \u2013 Luxembourg Research Fund (Project Reference: 15709764) and the University of Luxembourg. We greatly thank Mareike May for her support in participant recruitment.
Gallup. Gallup 2020 Global Emotions Report. 2020, Gallup, Inc https://www.gallup.com/analytics/248909/gallup-2020-global-emotions-report-pdf.aspx.
EU-OSHA. Mental Health in the EU. 2022 https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/751416/EPRS_BRI(2023)751416_EN.pdf.
Entertainment Software Association. 2021 Essential Facts About the Video Game Industry. 2021 Retrieved from https://www.theesa.com/resource/2021-essential-facts-about-the-video-game-industry/.
Entertainment Software Association. 2022 Essential Facts about the Video Game Industry. 2022 Retrieved from https://www.theesa.com/resource/2022-essential-facts-about-the-video-game-industry/.
Reinecke, L., Games and recovery: the use of video and computer games to recuperate from stress and strain. J. Media Psychol. 21:3 (2009), 126–142, 10.1027/1864-1105.21.3.126.
Russoniello, C.V., O'Brien, K., Parks, J.M., The effectiveness of casual video games in improving mood and decreasing stress. J. Cyberther. Rehabil. 2:1 (2009), 53–66.
Villani, D., Carissoli, C., Triberti, S., Marchetti, A., Gilli, G., Riva, G., Videogames for emotion regulation: a systematic review. Games. Health J. 7:2 (2018), 85–99, 10.1089/g4h.2017.0108.
Johannes, N., Vuorre, M., Przybylski, A.K., Video game play is positively correlated with well-being. R. Soc. Open. Sci., 8(2), 2021, 202049, 10.1098/rsos.202049 rsos.202049.
Vuorre, M., Johannes, N., Magnusson, K., Przybylski, A.K., Time spent playing video games is unlikely to impact well-being. R. Soc. Open. Sci., 9(7), 2022, 220411, 10.1098/rsos.220411.
Collins, E., Cox, A.L., Switch on to games: can digital games aid post-work recovery?. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 72:8–9 (2014), 654–662, 10.1016/j.ijhcs.2013.12.006.
Wagener, G.L., Schulz, A., Melzer, A., Games, hormones, and “dark” personalities: Dark Tetrad and the effects of violent gaming on aggression, cortisol, and testosterone. Physiol. Behav., 274, 2024, 114421, 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114421.
Hasan, Y., Bègue, L., Bushman, B.J., Violent video games stress people out and make them more aggressive: violent video games, stress, & aggression. Aggress. Behav. 39:1 (2013), 64–70, 10.1002/ab.21454.
Gentile, D.A., Bender, P.K., Anderson, C.A., Violent video game effects on salivary cortisol, arousal, and aggressive thoughts in children. Comput. Human. Behav. 70 (2017), 39–43, 10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.045.
Hossini, F., Rezaeeshrazi, R., Salehian, M.H., Dana, A., The effect of violent and non-violent computer games on changes in salivary cortisol concentration in male adolescents. Ann. Biol. Res. 2:6 (2011), 175–178.
Maass, A., Lohaus, A., Wolf, O.T., Media and stress in adolescent boys in Germany: psychophysiological effects of violent and nonviolent television programs and video games. J. Child Media 4:1 (2010), 18–38, 10.1080/17482790903407259.
Elson, M., Ferguson, C.J., Twenty-five years of research on violence in digital games and aggression: empirical evidence, perspectives, and a debate gone astray. Eur. Psychol. 19:1 (2014), 33–46, 10.1027/1016-9040/a000147.
Ferguson, C.J., Aggressive video games research emerges from its replication crisis (Sort of). Curr. Opin. Psychol. 36 (2020), 1–6, 10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.01.002.
Trepte, S., Reinecke, L., Schäwel, J., Medienpsychologie (3., Erweiterte und Überarbeitete Auflage). 2021, Verlag W. Kohlhammer.
Reinecke, L., Mood management theory. Rössler, P., (eds.) The International Encyclopedia of Media Effects, 2017, Wiley-Blackwell, 1–13.
Međedović, J., Petrović, B., The Dark Tetrad: structural properties and location in the personality space. J. Individ. Differ. 36:4 (2015), 228–236, 10.1027/1614-0001/a000179.
Greitemeyer, T., Everyday sadism predicts violent video game preferences. Pers. Individ. Dif. 75 (2015), 19–23, 10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.049.
Greitemeyer, T., Sagioglou, C., The longitudinal relationship between everyday sadism and the amount of violent video game play. Pers. Individ. Dif. 104 (2017), 238–242, 10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.021.
Porter, A.M., Goolkasian, P., Video games and stress: how stress appraisals and game content affect cardiovascular and emotion outcomes. Front. Psychol., 10, 2019 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00967.
Desai, V., Gupta, A., Andersen, L., Ronnestrand, B., Wong, M., Stress-reducing effects of playing a casual video game among undergraduate students. Trends Psychol. 29:3 (2021), 563–579, 10.1007/s43076-021-00062-6.
Markey, P.M., Ferguson, C.J., Hopkins, L.I., Video game play: myths and benefits. Am. J. Play. 13:1 (2020), 87–106.
Valkenburg, P.M., Peter, J., The differential susceptibility to media effects model. J. Commun. 63:2 (2013), 221–243, 10.1111/jcom.12024.
Allen, J.J., Ash, S.M., Anderson, C.A., Who finds media violence funny? Testing the effects of media violence exposure and dark personality traits. Psychol. Popular Media 11:1 (2022), 35–46, 10.1037/ppm0000296.
Bonfá-Araujo, B., Lima-Costa, A.R., Hauck-Filho, N., Jonason, P.K., Considering sadism in the shadow of the Dark Triad traits: a meta-analytic review of the Dark Tetrad. Pers. Individ. Dif., 197, 2022, 111767, 10.1016/j.paid.2022.111767.
Kircaburun, K., Jonason, P.K., Griffiths, M.D., The Dark Tetrad traits and problematic online gaming: the mediating role of online gaming motives and moderating role of game types. Pers. Individ. Dif. 135 (2018), 298–303, 10.1016/j.paid.2018.07.038.
Entertainment Software Association. 2023 Essential Facts about the Video Game Industry. 2023 Retrieved from https://www.theesa.com/2023-essential-facts/.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., Buchner, A., G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav. Res. Methods 39:2 (2007), 175–191, 10.3758/BF03193146.
Paulhus, D.L., Buckels, E.E., Trapnell, P.D., Jones, D.N., Screening for dark personalities: the Short Dark Tetrad (SD4). Euro. J. Psychol. Assess. 37:3 (2021), 208–222, 10.1027/1015-5759/a000602.
Bond, A., Lader, M., The use of analogue scales in rating subjective feelings. Br. J. Med. Psychol. 47:3 (1974), 211–218, 10.1111/j.2044-8341.1974.tb02285.x.
Luria, R.E., The validity and reliability of the visual analogue mood scale. J. Psychiatr. Res. 12:1 (1975), 51–57, 10.1016/0022-3956(75)90020-5.
Gündoğdu, S., Çolak, Ö.H., Doğan, E.A., Gülbetekin, E., Polat, Ö., Assessment of mental fatigue and stress on electronic sport players with data fusion. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 59:9 (2021), 1691–1707, 10.1007/s11517-021-02389-9.
Liu, S., Kaufmann, C., Labadie, C., Ströhle, A., Kuschpel, M.S., Garbusow, M., Hummel, R., Schad, D.J., Rapp, M.A., Heinz, A., Heinzel, S., Short-term effects of video gaming on brain response during working memory performance. PLoS. One, 14(10), 2019, e0223666, 10.1371/journal.pone.0223666.
Grove, J.R., Prapavessis, H., Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of an abbreviated Profile of Mood States. Int. J. Sport Psychol. 23 (1992), 93–109.
Kirschbaum, C., Steyer, R., Eid, M., Patalla, U., Schwenkmezger, P., Hellhammer, D.H., Cortisol and behavior: 2. Application of a Latent state-trait model to salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 15:4 (1990), 297–307, 10.1016/0306-4530(90)90080-S.
Kudielka, B.M., Buske-Kirschbaum, A., Hellhammer, D.H., Kirschbaum, C., HPA axis responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in healthy elderly adults, younger adults, and children: impact of age and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 29:1 (2004), 83–98, 10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00146-4.
Hayes, L., Grace, F., Kilgore, J., Young, J.D., Baker, J., Diurnal Variation of Cortisol, Testosterone, and their Ratio in Apparently Healthy Males. June 1, 2012 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Diurnal-variation-of-cortisol%2C-testosterone%2C-and-in-Hayes-Grace/bec8e6f69d46342242ae79c3e085ef72824ca0db.
Fissler, P., Küster, O.C., Laptinskaya, D., Loy, L.S., von Arnim, C.A.F., Kolassa, I.-T., Jigsaw puzzling taps multiple cognitive abilities and is a potential protective factor for cognitive aging. Front. Aging Neurosci., 10, 2018, 299, 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00299.
Baniqued, P.L., Lee, H., Voss, M.W., Basak, C., Cosman, J.D., DeSouza, S., Severson, J., Salthouse, T.A., Kramer, A.F., Selling points: what cognitive abilities are tapped by casual video games?. Acta Psychol. 142:1 (2013), 74–86, 10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.11.009.
Cherney, I.D., Mom, let me play more computer games: they improve my mental rotation skills. Sex. Roles. 59:11–12 (2008), 776–786, 10.1007/s11199-008-9498-z.
Colzato, L.S., DOOM'd to switch: superior cognitive flexibility in players of first person shooter games. Front. Psychol., 1, 2010, 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00008.
Cretenoud, A.F., Barakat, A., Milliet, A., Choung, O.-H., Bertamini, M., Constantin, C., Herzog, M.H., How do visual skills relate to action video game performance?. J. Vis., 21(7), 2021, 10, 10.1167/jov.21.7.10.
Liu, X., Huang, H., Yu, K., & Dou, D. (2020). Can video game training improve the two-dimensional mental rotation ability of young children?: a randomized controlled trial. In X. Fang (Ed.), HCI in Games (Vol. 12211, pp. 305–317). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50164-8_22.
IBM corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 27.0 [Computer Software]. 2020, IBM corp.
Pham, T., Lau, Z.J., Chen, S.H.A., Makowski, D., Heart rate variability in psychology: a review of HRV indices and an analysis tutorial. Sensors, 21(12), 2021, 3998, 10.3390/s21123998.
Dressendörfer, R.A., Kirschbaum, C., Rohde, W., Stahl, F., Strasburger, C.J., Synthesis of a cortisol-biotin conjugate and evaluation as a tracer in an immunoassay for salivary cortisol measurement. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 43:7 (1992), 683–692, 10.1016/0960-0760(92)90294-s.
Pallavicini, F., Pepe, A., Mantovani, F., Commercial off-the-shelf video games for reducing stress and anxiety: systematic review. JMIR. Ment. Health, 8(8), 2021, e28150, 10.2196/28150.
Jones, C., Scholes, L., Johnson, D., Katsikitis, M., Carras, M., Gaming well: links between videogames and flourishing mental health. Front. Psychol., 5, 2014 https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00260.
McGonigal, J., Reality is Broken: Why games Make us Better and How they Can Change the World; [includes practical Advice For Gamers]. 2012, Vintage Books.
Snodgrass, J.G., Lacy, M.G., Francois Dengah, H.J., Fagan, J., Most, D.E., Magical flight and monstrous stress: technologies of absorption and mental wellness in Azeroth. Cult., Med. Psychiatry 35:1 (2011), 26–62, 10.1007/s11013-010-9197-4.
Deleuze, J., Maurage, P., Schimmenti, A., Nuyens, F., Melzer, A., Billieux, J., Escaping reality through videogames is linked to an implicit preference for virtual over real-life stimuli. J. Affect. Disord. 245 (2019), 1024–1031, 10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.078.
Bowman, N.D., Tamborini, R., Task demand and mood repair: the intervention potential of computer games. New. Media Soc. 14:8 (2012), 1339–1357, 10.1177/1461444812450426.
Campbell, J., Ehlert, U., Acute psychosocial stress: does the emotional stress response correspond with physiological responses?. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 37:8 (2012), 1111–1134, 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.12.010.
Sommerfeldt, S.L., Schaefer, S.M., Brauer, M., Ryff, C.D., Davidson, R.J., Individual differences in the association between subjective stress and heart rate are related to psychological and physical well-being. Psychol. Sci. 30:7 (2019), 1016–1029, 10.1177/0956797619849555.
Ferguson, C.J., Rueda, S.M., The Hitman study: violent video game exposure effects on aggressive behavior, hostile feelings, and depression. Eur. Psychol. 15:2 (2010), 99–108, 10.1027/1016-9040/a000010.
Lee, E.-J., Kim, H.S., Choi, S., Violent video games and aggression: stimulation or catharsis or both?. Cyberpsychol., Behav. Soc. Netw. 24:1 (2021), 41–47, 10.1089/cyber.2020.0033.
Sindermann, C., Sariyska, R., Lachmann, B., Brand, M., Montag, C., Associations between the dark triad of personality and unspecified/specific forms of Internet-use disorder. J. Behav. Addict. 7:4 (2018), 985–992, 10.1556/2006.7.2018.114.
Tang, W.Y., Reer, F., Quandt, T., The interplay of gaming disorder, gaming motivations, and the dark triad. J. Behav. Addict. 9:2 (2020), 491–496, 10.1556/2006.2020.00013.
Xu, X., Gao, L., Lian, S., Chen, Q., Zhou, Z., How the Dark Triad associated with internet gaming disorder? The serial mediation of basic psychological needs satisfaction and negative coping styles. Curr. Psychol. 42:34 (2023), 30138–30146, 10.1007/s12144-022-03996-x.
