Voice under Domination: Notes on the Making and Significance of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants

GRADONI, Lorenzo; Pasquet, Luca

doi:10.1093/ejil/chac014

Article (Scientific journals)

Voice under Domination: Notes on the Making and Significance of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants

GRADONI, Lorenzo; Pasquet, Luca

2022 • In European Journal of International Law, 33 (1), p. 39 - 64

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Keywords :

International Law; United Nations; Rights of Peasants; Human Rights

Abstract :

[en] In 2018, a transnational coalition led by La Vía Campesina, a 200-million-strong peasants' organization, managed to have the United Nations General Assembly adopt the Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas (UNDROP). The present article examines selected aspects of the law-making process that led to the Declaration, focusing on the stiff resistance encountered by the peasants' struggle for equality. As the most controversial UN-sponsored human rights instrument ever, the UNDROP intrudes deeply into the field of relations of production and market structures and applies to billions worldwide, including the great majority of the population in least developed countries. Framed as a case study of a voice under domination in international law, the article retrieves what the oppressed were not allowed to say through the language of international human rights law and describes how they responded to this impediment. It argues that UNDROP fits into a law-making tradition rooted in the decolonization process, reinvigorates it and channels it in new directions. UNDROP combines NIEO-inspired measures and human rights law in a way that seems to achieve much more than the elusive Declaration on the Right to Development. Its non-consensual adoption and radical content also point to a possible alternative to the absorption of the political process concerning the right to development into the a-conflictual logic of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Disciplines :

European & international law

Author, co-author :

GRADONI, Lorenzo ; University of Luxembourg > Luxembourg Centre for European Law (LCEL) > LCEL Research ; Max Planck Institute Luxembourg for Procedural Law, Luxembourg

Pasquet, Luca ; International Law, Utrecht University School of Law, Utrecht, Netherlands

External co-authors :

yes

Language :

English

Title :

Voice under Domination: Notes on the Making and Significance of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants

Publication date :

February 2022

Journal title :

European Journal of International Law

ISSN :

0938-5428

eISSN :

1464-3596

Publisher :

Oxford University Press

Volume :

Issue :

Pages :

39 - 64

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

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https://academic.oup.com/ejil/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/ejil/chac014/43662279/chac014.pdf

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since 07 January 2025

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Bibliography

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V. Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution: Third World Agriculture, Ecology and Politics (1991)
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The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019, at 5.
Ibid., at 22.
The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2017, at 10.
Ibid., at 34.
GA Res. 72/239, 19 January 2018, at 2-3.
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GA Res. 72/239, supra note 7, at 1.
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GA Res. 3281 (XXIX), 12 December 1974. Having received 121 affirmative votes out of a total voting membership of 193 (63 per cent), the UNDROP proved to be more contentious than the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, which received 120 affirmative votes from a smaller total of 138 voters (87 per cent). UN Doc. A/PV.2315 (1975), at 1372, para. 99. Eight states voted against the Declaration: Australia, Guatemala, Hungary, Israel, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. Only Luxembourg, Portugal and Switzerland broke ranks with the First World to cast an affirmative vote. UN Doc. A/73/PV.55 (2018), at 24-25.
B. Moore, Injustice: The Social Bases of Obedience and Revolt (1978), at 459.
For Heri, 'The Human Right to Land, for Peasants and for All: Tracing the Social Function of Property to 1948', 20 Human Rights Law Review (2020) 433, at 449, the UNDROP aims to change the human rights framework from within, threatening the stability of a system premised on global capitalism. Similarly J. J. Wills, Contesting World Order? Socioeconomic Rights and Global Justice Movements (2017), at 142. Cotula, 'Between Hope and Critique: Human Rights, Social Justice and Re-imagining International Law from the Bottom Up', 48 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law (2020), 473, at 513, believes that the UNDROP is unique in that it establishes 'a strong relation between social justice claims and human rights norms'. Salomon, 'The Radical Ideation of Peasants, the "Pseudo-Radicalism" of International Human Rights Law, and the Revolutionary Lawyer', 8 London Review of International Law (2020) 425, at 450, found that the Declaration 'begins chipping away at the very political-economic system that underpins the legal form and is reinforced by it'. For a sceptical take, see A. Chadwick, Law and the Political Economy of Hunger (2019), at 185-191.
The list of the affiliated organizations is available at https://viacampesina.org/en/who-are-we/regions/. On La Vía's history and politics generally, see M. Edelman and S. M. Borras, Political Dynamics of Transnational Agrarian Movements (2016)
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Figueroa-Helland, Thomas and Pérez Aguilera, 'Decolonizing Food Systems: Food Sovereignty, Indigenous Revitalization, and Agroecology as Counter-Hegemonic Movements', 17 Perspectives on Global Development and Technology (2018) 173.
See C. Golay, Legal Reflections on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas, Background Paper Prepared for the First Session of the Working Group on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas (2013), at 6-9, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/WGPleasants/Golay.pdf (last visited 7 April 2022)
Claeys and Edelman, 'The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas', 47 Journal of Peasant Studies (2020) 1, at 25-33
Pacheco Rodriguez and Rosales Lozada, 'The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas: One Step Forward in the Promotion of Human Rights of the Most Vulnerable', 123 South Centre Research Papers (2020), at 3.
Rajagopal, 'Counter-Hegemonic International Law: Rethinking Human Rights and Development as a Third World Strategy', 27 Third World Quarterly (2006) 767, at 781.
Claeys and Edelman, supra note 18, at 1.
Rajagopal, 'Culture, Resistance, and the Problems of Translating Human Rights', 41 Texas Journal of International Law (2006) 419, at 422. In the same vein, see Chimni, 'Third World Approaches to International Law: A Manifesto', 8 International Community Law Review (2006) 3, at 24
U. Baxi, The Future of Human Rights (2006), esp. ch. 3
B. S. Chimni, International Law and World Order (2017) at 534-543. See also Brem-Wilson, 'From "Here" to "There": Social Movements, the Academy and Solidarity Research', 10 Socialist Studies (2014) 111.
J. C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (1990), at 137. See also J. C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (1987), a classic in the field of peasant studies, from which Scott drew much of the material employed in his later theoretical work.
Scott, Domination, supra note 22, at 96.
Ibid., at 93.
Ibid., at 103.
Rajagopal, 'The International Human Rights Movement Today', 24 Maryland Journal of International Law (2009) 56. See also Hunt, 'Rights and Social Movements: Counter-Hegemonic Strategies', 17 Journal of Law and Society (1990) 309, at 314, 320
Özsu, 'The Question of Form: Methodological Notes on Dialectics and International Law', 23 Leiden Journal of International Law (2010) 687, at 698.
Scott, Domination, supra note 22, at xii.
Cutler, 'Gramsci, Law and the Culture of Global Capitalism', 8 Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy (2005) 527, at 537
On food sovereignty generally, see Patel, 'What Does Food Sovereignty Look Like?', 36 Journal of Peasant Studies (2009) 663
Nash, 'Human Rights, Movements and Law: On Not Researching Legitimacy', 46 Sociology (2012) 797
Bellinger and Fakhri, 'The Intersection between Food Sovereignty and Law', 28(2) Natural Resources and Environment (2013) 45
Claeys, 'Food Sovereignty and the Recognition of New Rights for Peasants at the UN: A Critical Overview of La Vía Campesina's Rights Claims over the Last 20 Years', 12 Globalizations (2015) 452, at 458
Dunford, 'Human Rights and Collective Emancipation: The Politics of Food Sovereignty', 41 Review of International Studies (2015) 239.
See, e.g., La Vía Campesina South Asia, South Asia Regional Meeting Declaration (Kathmandu, 9-11 September 2006): 'food sovereignty is an inalienable right'. Gathii, 'Food Sovereignty for Poor Countries in the Global Trading System', 57 Loyola Law Review (2011) 509, at 534, stresses the existence of a close relationship between the two concepts.
La Vía Campesina, 'Towards an International Convention of the Rights of Peasants' in La Vía Campesina Policy Documents (2009) 173. This compilation of documents 'represents a broad consensus within La Vía Campesina' and 'an important basis to go further and deeper into the building of a strong peasant's voice' (ibid., at 4).
See infra, Section 3.
C. Hubert, The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants: A Tool in the Struggle for Our Common Future (2019), at 26. See also Untitled working document A, on file with authors, at 6 (La Vía plus 'rights activists and academics developed a global step for the institutionalisation of rights').
La Vía Campesina, Declaration of the Rights of Peasants: Women and Men (2009), at 2.
See infra, Section 3.
Claeys and Edelman, supra note 18, at 20 (interview).
P. Claeys, Human Rights and the Food Sovereignty Movement: Reclaiming Control (2015), at 55-56.
Referred to in Golay's recollections, supra note 18.
Untitled working document A, on file with authors, at 6. See also Golay, supra note 18, at 5.
Untitled working document B, on file with authors, at 3.
Edelman and James, 'Peasants Rights and the UN System: Quixotic Struggle? Or Emancipatory Idea Whose Time Has Come?', 38 Journal of Peasant Studies (2011) 81, at 92-93.
See FIAN and La Vía Campesina, Violations of Peasants' Human Rights (2004)
FIAN, Violations of Peasants' Human Rights (2005)
La Vía Campesina, Violations of Peasants' Human Rights (2006).
Hubert, supra note 33, at 26.
Delpechin and Nhamposa, 'African Perspective: The Food Crisis Is Not Just About Food' in La Vía Campesina Policy Documents (2009) 16, at 26.
E. P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (1975), at 268.
See supra note 23 and corresponding text.
Untitled working document A, on file with authors, at 9.
Ibid., at 14. Here and elsewhere, we quote the 2012 draft verbatim.
Ibid., at 16.
Ibid., at 9 (emphasis added).
Untitled working document B, on file with authors, at 9.
Ibid. (now Art. III(1) of the 2009 Declaration).
Ibid., at 14.
Ibid., at 11.
Ibid., at 13.
Ibid., at 14.
Ibid., at 15.
2009 Declaration, at 3.
Ibid.
La Vía Campesina, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas: A Book of Illustrations (2020), at 4.
As reported in Golay, supra note 18, at 6.
De Schutter, 'Seed Policies and the Right To Food: Enhancing Agrobiodiversity and Encouraging Innovation', Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, UN Doc. A/64/170 (2009)
De Schutter, 'Large-Scale Land Acquisitions and Leases: A Set of Minimum Principles and Measures to Address the Human Rights Challenge', Addendum to the Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, UN Doc. A/HRC/13/33/Add.2 (2009)
Ziegler, Report of the Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on the Right to Food, UN Doc. A/57/356 (2002).
Report of the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee on its Second Session, UN Doc. A/HRC/AC/2/2 (2009), at 19.
UN Doc. A/HRC/10/12 (2009), at 10, para. 36.
Christophe Golay, who at the time assisted Ziegler at the Advisory Committee, recalls that it was clear that the latter 'did not have an explicit mandate to propose a declaration'. See Edelman and Claeys, supra note 18, at 21.
Preliminary Study on Discrimination in the Context of the Right to Food, UN Doc. A/HRC/13/32 (2010), at 22, para. 78.
HRC Res. 13/4, 24 March 2010, at 7, para. 44.
HRC Res. 21/19, 27 September 2012, at 1, para. 1.
Final Study of the Advisory Committee on the Advancement of the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/75 (2012), at 20, para. 72.
In an old memorandum prepared for the UN Commission on Human Rights, the UN Secretariat's Office of Legal Affairs suggested that declarations differ from ordinary recommendations. Although a resolution 'cannot be made binding upon Member States purely by the device of terming it a "declaration" rather than a "recommendation"', a declaration is nonetheless 'a solemn instrument resorted to only in very rare cases relating to matters of major and lasting importance where maximum compliance is expected'. UN Economic and Social Council, 'Use of the Terms "Declaration" and "Recommendation"', Memorandum by the Office of Legal Affairs, UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.610 (1962), at 2, para. 5.
2009 Declaration, at 2.
Ibid., at 12.
La Vía has not officially abandoned the plan to have the Declaration's contents recast into a binding instrument. See Montón, 'Opinion: Adoption of the Peasant's Rights Declaration Enriches the Human Rights System', 29 June 2019, available at https://viacampesina.org/en/opinion-adoption-of-the-peasants-rights-declaration-enriches-the-human-rights-system/(last visited 8 April 2022).
Larking, 'Mobilising for Food Sovereignty: The Pitfalls of International Human Rights Strategies and Exploration of Alternatives', 23 International Journal of Human Rights (2019) 758, draws comparisons between La Vía's 2009 Declaration and the draft adopted by the intergovernmental working group in 2015.
2009 Declaration, at 5.
Final Study, supra note 69, at 22.
2009 Declaration, at 5, 3rd recital.
Final Study, supra note 69, at 22.
2009 Declaration, at 5, 3rd recital.
Final Study, supra note 69, at 22, 3rd recital.
2009 Declaration, 7th recital: 'Considering that peasants' conditions are worsening because of governments' exclusion of peasants from policy decision making, because of the use of military, and/or paramilitary groups to displace peasants and allowing transnational corporations to exploit natural resources'. Compare Final Study, supra note 69, at 22, 6th and 7th recitals.
Final Study, supra note 69, at 22, 7th preambular paragraph: 'Considering the increasing concentration of the food systems in the world in the hands of a small number of transnational corporations'.
See, in this regard, Marks, 'Human Rights and Root Causes', 74 Modern Law Review (2011) 57.
Larking, supra note 74, at 15. See, inter alia, 18th recital ('Considering the hazardous and exploitative conditions that exist in many parts of the world under which many peasants and other people working in rural areas have to work') and 19th recital, where people defending the rights of peasants are said to 'face a high risk of being subjected to different forms of intimidation and of violations of their physical integrity'.
UNDROP, 20th recital.
2009 Declaration, 8th recital.
Ibid., Art. VI, para. 1. See also Art. IV, para. 13: 'Peasants (women and men) have the right to maintain and strengthen their distinct political, legal, economic, social and cultural institutions, while retaining their right to participate fully, if they so choose, in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the State.'
Final Study, supra note 69, at 25, Art. 6(1).
2009 Declaration, Art. V, para. 9. See also Art. VIII, para. 9.
Final Study, supra note 69, at 23, Art. 2(5). The experts drew the definition from the Nyéléni Declaration on Food Sovereignty (27 February 2007), reproduced in 36 Journal of Peasant Studies (2009) 673.
See supra note 29 and corresponding text.
See Art. 15(4) UNDROP: 'Peasants and other people working in rural areas have the right to determine their own food and agriculture systems, recognized by many States and regions as the right to food sovereignty.'
Final Study, supra note 69, at 24-27, Arts. 3(2), 5, 9, 10, 11.
Bailey, 'Strategic Ignorance', in S. Sullivan and N. Tuana (eds), Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance (2007) 77. For Hobsbawm, supra note 8, at 13, 'refusal to understand is a form of class struggle'.
Compare Larking, supra note 74, at 760: 'in these confrontational contexts, the language of human rights has been used creatively and in ways that are idiosyncratic from a legal perspective.'
Merry, 'Transnational Human Rights and Local Activism: Mapping the Middle', 108 American Anthropologist (2006) 38, at 48.
Goldstein, 'Whose Vernacular? Translating Human Rights in Local Contexts', in M. Goodale (ed.), Human Rights at the Crossroads (2013) 111, at 120.
See Marks, supra note 83, at 71.
La Vía Campesina, supra note 60, at 6.
Ibid., at 39.
Ibid., at iii.
UN Doc. A/C.3/73/SR.53 (2018), at 3, para. 13.
Ibid., at 3, paragraphs 17-18.
Ibid., at 6, para. 30.
Ibid., at 6, para. 26.
Ibid., at 6, para. 28.
Ibid., at 4-5, para. 20. Similarly Singapore, at 6, para. 32.
Video recording available at http://webtv.un.org. The quoted passage is at 44m23s.
Fifth Session of the Open-Ended Intergovernmental Working Group on United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas (9-13 April 2018), Statement by Portugal, at 2.
E. Laclau, Emancipation(s) (1996), at 34.
M. Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870-1960 (2002), at 505-506.
Ẑiẑek, 'Against Human Rights', 34 New Left Review (2005) 115, at 131.
Final Study, supra note 69, at 22, 1st recital.
UNDROP, 1st recital.
Ibid., 33rd recital.
2009 Declaration, at 2.
Untitled working document A, on file with authors, at 1.
2009 Declaration, at 2.
Untitled working document A, on file with authors, at 1.
Saragih, 'Introduction' in La Vía Campesina Policy Documents (2009) 3, at 4.
A. Gramsci, Selection from the Prison Notebooks (1971), at 181.
Ibid., at 181-182.
Özden, 'Introduction' in Hubert, supra note 33, at 15.
UN Doc. A/C.3/73/SR.53 (2018), at 5, para. 25. The United States further complained that the proposed text 'assumed the existence of rights for which there was no internationally accepted definition or recognition, such as rights to seeds, to return to the land, to use traditional ways of farming, to food sovereignty and to biological diversity'.
Ibid., at 7, para. 35.
Ibid., at 3, para. 12.
Ibid., at 4, para. 14.
Ibid., at 6, para. 31.
Wallerstein, 'Structural Crises', 62 New Left Review (2010) 133, at 136.
Krasner, 'Transforming International Regimes: What the Third World Wants and Why', 25 International Studies Quarterly (1981) 119.
Von Bernstorff and Dann, 'The Battle for International Law: An Introduction', in J. von Bernstorff and P. Dann (eds), The Battle for International Law: South-North Perspectives on the Decolonization Era (2019) 3.
GA Res. 3201(S-VI), 1 May 1974.
M. Mazower, Governing the World: The History of an Idea (2012), at 343.
B. Rajagopal, International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance (2003), at 217.
Archondo, 'Breve biografía política de Evo Morales', 19 Umbrales (2009) 97, at 106-107
Herrera, 'Empoderamiento campesino con base étnica: Relaciones políticas CSUTCB-Gobierno', 42 Temas Sociales (2018) 147.
Do Alto, 'Un partido campesino en el poder: Una mirada sociológica del MAS boliviano', 234 Nueva Sociedad (2011) 95, at 99.
'Compañero Evo Morales!', 12 January 2006, available at https://viacampesina.org/en/compa-evomorales (last visited 8 April 2022).
'Cancillería cesa a un 80% de los embajadores colocados por el anterior Gobierno: El Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores también informó que se ha procedido a retirar al país de la Alba', El Deber, 15 November 2019.
FAO, The Peasants' Charter: The Declaration of Principles and Programme of Action of the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (1982), at iv.
Ibid.
See Dupuy, 'Declaratory Law and Programmatory Law: From Revolutionary Custom to "Soft Law"', in R. Akkerman (ed.), Declarations of Principles: A Quest for Universal Peace (1977) 252.
'Progressive Development of the Principles and Norms of International Law Relating to the New International Economic Order', Report of the Secretary-General, Addendum, UN Doc. A/39/504/Add.1 (1984), Annex 3, at 102-103, para. 210. On which, see Abi-Saab, 'The Third World Intellectual in Praxis: Confrontation, Participation, or Operation Behind Enemy Lines?', 37 Third World Quarterly (2016) 1957, at 1965-1966.
Ibid., at 103, para. 210.
Reported in A. Cassese and J.H. H. Weiler (eds), Change and Stability in International Law-Making (1988), at 10: 'This is why it may be safer, at least for the time being, to keep the old label, while using the new technique.'
Chimni, 'Customary International Law: A Third World Perspective', 112 American Journal of International Law (2018) 1, at 43. In the same vein, see Okubuiro, 'Application of Hegemony to Customary International Law: An African Perspective', 7 Global Journal of Comparative Law (2018) 232.
Abi-Saab, 'Éloge du "droit assourdi": Quelques réflexions sur le rôle de la soft law en droit international contemporain', in Nouveaux itinéraires du droit: Hommage à François Rigaux (1993) 59, at 64 (our translation).
La Vía Campesina, supra note 60, at 4-6.
'Progressive Development', supra note 142, at 103, para. 212.
GA Res. 41/128, 12 December 1986.
UN Human Rights Council, 'The Parlous State of Poverty Eradication', Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, UN Doc. A/HRC/44/40 (2020), at 11, para. 45.
UN Human Rights Council, 'Importance of a Legally Binding Instrument on the Right to Development', Report of the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee, UN Doc. A/HRC/45/40 (2020), at 7, para. 30.
Ibid., at 16-17, paragraphs 68, 71.
UN Doc. A/HRC/42/35 (2019), at 14, para. 72.
UN Human Rights Council, supra note 157, at 5, para. 22.
GA Res. 70/1, supra note 151, at 32, para. 74(e).
Joint Statement by UN Human Rights Experts: First Anniversary of the Adoption of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas, 17 December 2019.
UN Human Rights Council, supra note 153, at 10, para. 38.
UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26, vol. I, chs 23, 32.
UN Doc. A/RES/70/1, supra note 151, at 3, para. 5.
UN Human Rights Council, supra note 157, at 19, para. 88 (emphasis added). Ten Members of the European Union (then including the United Kingdom), Australia, Japan and Ukraine voted against the Human Rights Council's Resolution that welcomed the then still ongoing work of the Advisory Committee. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay and Iceland abstained. See HRC Res. 42/23, supra note 154, at 7.
Boyle, 'Some Reflections on the Relationship of Treaties and Soft Law', 48 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (1999) 901.
GA Res. 61/295, 13 September 2007. See particularly Arts. 10, 25, 26-30, 32 UNDRIP.
Supreme Court of Belize, Aurelio Cal et al. v. Attorney General of Belize, Judgment of 18 October 2007, at 132-134. On which, see Barelli, 'The Role of Soft Law in the International Legal System: The Case of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples', 58 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (2009) 957, at 964
Gómez Isa, 'The Role of Soft Law in the Progressive Development of Indigenous Peoples' Rights', in S. Lagoutte, T. Gammeltoft and J. Cerone (eds), Tracing the Roles of Soft Law in Human Rights (2016), at 208-210.
IACtHR, Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment of 28 November 2007, at 131. All IACtHR decisions are available at http://www.corteidh.or.cr/index.php/en/jurisprudencia (last visited 8 April 2022).
IACtHR, Indigenous Communities of the Lhaka Honhat (Our Land) Association v. Argentina, Judgment of 6 February 2020, at 136.