International Legal Governance of Space Resources and the Role of National Frameworks: The Case of China

ÜNÜVAR, Günes; SU, Xueji

doi:10.1093/chinesejil/jmae024

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International Legal Governance of Space Resources and the Role of National Frameworks: The Case of China

ÜNÜVAR, Günes; SU, Xueji

2024 • In Chinese Journal of International Law, 23 (3), p. 499 - 545

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Keywords :

Political Science and International Relations; Law

Abstract :

[en] Following decades long political and legal uncertainty, several spacefaring States passed national laws asserting (or reaffirming) private rights on resources extracted in space. This “bottom-up” approach is now shaping the fundamentals of international norms and rules. While the so-called “Artemis Bloc” and the US legislative and policy-making efforts have been examined extensively, what is missing is an in-depth analysis of the stance and response of other major spacefaring nations. This article contributes to the scholarship by studying China’s perspective. The article considers the ongoing proliferation of national laws and policy-making efforts and the increased pace of commercialisation in the space sector as the driving force of international law-making. It then notes the absence of a clear-cut national legislation in China governing space operations linked to resource extraction from celestial bodies. The paper argues that China, as a major space-faring and a developing country, is poised to have an assertive voice in international space law-making. It shows how a stronger national legal framework, coupled with international law and policy-making efforts, can elevate China’s contribution in international space law-in particular regarding space resource extraction and utilisation.

Disciplines :

European & international law

Author, co-author :

ÜNÜVAR, Günes ; University of Luxembourg > Luxembourg Centre for European Law (LCEL) > LCEL Research

SU, Xueji; University of Macao > Faculty of Law

External co-authors :

yes

Language :

English

Title :

International Legal Governance of Space Resources and the Role of National Frameworks: The Case of China

Publication date :

September 2024

Journal title :

Chinese Journal of International Law

ISSN :

1540-1650

eISSN :

1746-9937

Publisher :

Oxford University Press

Volume :

Issue :

Pages :

499 - 545

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Additional URL :

https://academic.oup.com/chinesejil/article-pdf/23/3/499/60773853/jmae024.pdf

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since 21 December 2024

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Albin Eser, Individual Criminal Responsibility, in Antonio Cassese, Paola Gaeta and John R.W.D. Jones (eds), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary, vol. I (OUP 2002) 767, 779.
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Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1280th Plenary Meeting of the General Assembly, 13 December 1963 (https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_18_1962E.pdf).
UNCOPUOS, Letter dated 11 July 1966 Addressed to the Chairman of the Legal Sub-committee by the representative of the USSR (A/AC.105/C.2/L.13)(https:// www.unoosa.org/pdf/limited/c2/AC105_C2_L013E.pdf).
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citing Robinson and White, 1986, 187(https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/ 1992lbsa.conf..691G/0000692.000.html).
UNCLOS, pursuant to its Article 136, designates the Area, defined as “the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction” under Article 1, as the common heritage of mankind.
OST, above n. 7, art. I.
OST, art. II.
Rossana Deplano, The Artemis Accords: Evolution or Revolution in International Space Law?, 70 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 799, 810 (2021).
The Moon Treaty, above n. 15, art. 11.
Bin Cheng, The Moon Treaty: Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies within the Solar System other than the Earth, Studies in International Space Law (1997), 357-380, 374; reproduced from first publication at 33 CLP (1980), 213-237.
Article 11(5) of the Moon Treaty reads: “States Parties to this agreement hereby undertake to establish an international regime, including appropriate procedures, to govern the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon as such exploitation is about to become feasible. This provision shall be implemented in accordance with article 18 of this Agreement.” Article 18 provides a rendez-vous arrangement to revisit Article 11(5) with regard to technological developments.
Irmgard Marboe, Space Resources and Property Rights—Unilateral and Multilateral Approaches, in Michael Lysander Fremuth, Jörn Griebel, and Robert Heinsch (eds), Natural Resources and International Law—Developments and Challenges: A Liber Amicorum in Honour of Stephan Hobe (Nomos, 2021) 231, 249.
What “benefit sharing” exactly captures is not clear. It often encapsulates general commitments, but notably excludes the sharing of financial benefits. See Kiran Mohan Vazhapully, Space Law at the Crossroads: Contextualizing the Artemis Accords and the Space Resources Executive Order (Opinio Juris, 22 July 2020).
Also see Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resource Activities: A Commentary, Olavo de Bittencourt Neto, Mahulena Hofmann, Tanja Masson-Zwan, and Dimitra Stefoudi (eds) (Eleven, 2020), 74-79. Building Block 13 concerns the sharing of benefits.
Ünüvar, above n. 29.
Luxembourg Space Agency, International Space Law (space-agency.public.lu/en/ agency/legal-framework.html);
UAE Space Agency, International Space Law (space. gov.ae/Page/20122/20216/International-Law).
US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 (www.congress.gov/114/plaws/publ90/PLAW-114publ90.pdf);
Space Resource Exploration and Utilization Act of 2015 (www.congress.gov/114/bills/hr1508/BILLS-114hr1508rh.pdf).
§ 51301. Definitions (www.congress.gov/114/bills/hr1508/BILLS-114hr1508rh.pdf).
§51302. Commercialization of space resource exploration and utilization (www.congress.gov/114/bills/hr1508/BILLS-114hr1508rh.pdf).
§ 51303. Legal framework.
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Federal Law No. 12 of 2019 on the Regulation of the Space Sector.
Ibid., art. 1.
Ibid., art. 4.
The Emirati Federal Law No. 12 of 2019 on the Regulation of the Space Sector, arts. 14 and 18. The law sets as one of its objectives as follows: “Stimulating investment and encouraging private and academic sector participation in the Space Sector and related activities”.
Also see Cabinet Resolution No. (19) of 2023 Concerning the Space Resources Regulations (https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/1634/download).
Act No. 83 of 2021 on the Promotion of Business Activities for the Exploration and Development of Space Resources, art. 2.
Act No. 83 of 2021 on the Promotion of Business Activities for the Exploration and Development of Space Resources,, art. 2(ii).
Act No. 83 of 2021 on the Promotion of Business Activities for the Exploration and Development of Space Resources,, art. 5.
Act No. 83 of 2021 on the Promotion of Business Activities for the Exploration and Development of Space Resources,, arts. 6(1) and (2).
Act No. 83 of 2021 on the Promotion of Business Activities for the Exploration and Development of Space Resources,, art. 7(1).
Space Resources, Artemis Accords, Section 10 (www.nasa.gov/specials/artemisaccords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf).
Alexander Stirn, Do NASA’s Lunar Exploration Rules Violate Space Law? (Scientific American, 12 November 2020), quoting Stephan Hobe (www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law/).
For example, the Japanese Act No. 83 consistently refers to international law.
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CE, 6, authors’ translation.
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Gao, above n. 8.
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More specifically, the SASTIND carries out the following functions: developing production and technology policy, developing plans for the nuclear, aerospace, aviation, shipping and ordinance industries, and implementing industry management; research on developing policies, laws and regulations on defence industry and dual-use conversions; formulating rules on defence industry and industry management. Guofang Kexue Jishu Gongye Weiyuanhui Zhineng Peizhi, Neishe Jigou He Renyuan Bianzhi Guiding [Regulations on the Functional Allocation, Internal Institutions and Staffing of the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense(dissolved)], promulgated in 1998.
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Zhao, above n. 8, 24.
Zhao, above n. 8, 33.
Zhao, above n. 8, 35.
Yongliang Qi, A Study of Aerospace Legislation in China, 33 Journal of Space Law (2007), 406.
On a comprehensive analysis of China’s fragmented space legislation, see Guozhu Gao, Woguo Hangtian Fa Lifa Suo Yituo De Guonei Falv Huanjing Fenxi [An Analysis of the Domestic Legal Situation Relied on in the Legislation of China’s Space Law], 4 Xibei Gongye Daxue Xuebao [Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University] (2019) 71.
Order No. 6 of the Commission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defence of the People’s Republic of China (dissolved) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (the Registration Measures) (“Kongjian Wuti Dengji Guanli Banfa”).
Order No. 12 of the Commission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defence of the People’s Republic of China (dissolved)(“Minyong Hangtian Fashe Xiangmu Xukezheng Guanli Zanxing Banfa”).
Notice of the State Administration of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense on strengthening the management of civil space launch project licenses (“Guofang Kegong Ju Guanyu Jiaqiang Minyong Hangtian Fashe Xiangmu Xukezheng Guanli Youguan Shixiang de Tongzhi”), 6 March 2023 (https://www.sastind.gov.cn/n10086167/n10086221/c10129160/content.html).
Ke Gong Fa [2002] No. 534, 18 August 2002(“Guofang Keji Gongye Minyong Zhuanxiang Keyan Guanli Banfa”).
Other regulations and departmental rules include Interim Measures for the Management of National Civil Satellite Remote Sensing Data, Ke Gong Yi Si [2018] No. 1866 (“Guojia Minyong Yaogan Shuju Guanli Zanxing Banfa”), Interim Measures for the Management of Civil Satellite Projects, promulgated in 2016, Ke Gong Yi Si [2016] No. 986 (“Minyong Weixing Gongcheng Guanli Zanxing Banfa”), Notice on Promoting the Standardized and Orderly Development of Commercial Launch Vehicles, Ke Gong Yi Si [20189] No. 647 (“Guanyu Cujin Shangyr Yunzai Huojian Guifa Youxu Fazhan de Tongzhi”), and Notice on Matters Concerning Strengthening the Administration of Licenses for Civil Space Launch Projects, promulgated in 2023 (“Guofang Kegong Ju Guanyu Jiaqiang Minyong Hangtian Fashe Xiangmu Xukezheng Guanli Youguan Shixiang de Tongzhi”).
State Council Order No. 556, 12 May 2009 (“Jichu Cehui Tiaoli”).
The Administrative Measures, above n.88, and the Licensing Measures, above n.89.
The Regulation on Telecommunications of 2000, Decree No. 291, amended in 2014 (“Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Dianxin Tiaoli”).
China’s export controls are regulated under a body of law and administrative regulations. Export Control Law of the People’s Republic of China, Order No. 58 of the President of the People’s Republic of China, adopted in 2020 (“Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Chukou Guanzhi Fa”);
Regulations on Export Control of Military Products, first released in 1997 and revised in 2002 (“Junpin Chukou Guanli Tiaoli”);
Administrative Regulations on Export Control of Missiles and Missiles Related Items and Technologies of 2002 (“Daoda ji Xiangguan Wuxiang he Jishu Chukou Guanli Tiaoli”);
Regulations on Export Control of Nuclear Products of 2006 (“He Chukou Guanzhi Tiaoli”);
Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Administration of the Controlled Chemicals of 1995 (“Jiankong Huaxuepin Guanzhi Tiaoli”);
Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Control of Nuclear Dual-use Items and Related Technologies Export, revised in 2007 (“He Liangyongpin ji Xiangguan Jishu Chukou Guanzhi Tiaoli”) and Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Export Control of Dual-use Biological Agents and Related Equipment and Technologie (“Shengwu Liangyongpin ji Xiangguan Shebei he Jishu Chukou Guanzhi Tiaoli”).
Keyuan Zou, International Law in the Chinese Domestic Context, 44 Valparaiso University Law Review (2010), 935;
Bjorn Ahl, Chinese Law and International Treaties, 39 Hong Kong LJ (2009), 741.
Hanqin Xue and Qian Jin, International Treaties in the Chinese Domestic Legal System, 8 Chinese JIL (2009), 299.
Registration Measures, art. 1.
UNCOPUOS, Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines, UN Doc. A/62/20 (2007). These guidelines suggest the members take domestic measures, “through national mechanisms or through their own applicable mechanisms, to ensure that these guidelines are implemented, to the greatest extent feasible, through space debris mitigation practices and procedures.”
The Chinese government released the first draught of the System Table of the Space Debris Standards Framework a year later. This document outlines explicit guidelines for relevant space debris standards when Chinese entities conduct space activities. Another pertinent legislation is the Interim Measures on Space Debris Mitigation and Protective Management (Interim Measures), promulgated by SASTIND on 1 December 2009.
See for details in Shouping Li, The Establishment of National Mechanism on Space Debris Mitigation, 21 Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics (2008), 37.
Measures for the Management of Space Debris Mitigation and Protection, promulgated in Decembr 2015 (“Kongjian Suipian Jianhuan ji Fanghu Guanli Banfa”). The requirements are also raised in other departmental rules.
See also Marc Carns, Orbital Debris Prevention and Mitigation Efforts Among Major Space Actors: Commonalities and the Search for Customary International Law (Studies in Space Law) (Brill 2023), 175.
Li, above n. 8.
Li, 468.
Zhao, above n. 8, 222 ff.
See also, Jianfeng Han, Review on Space Debris-related Legislation and Views on Chinese Space Legislation, 23 The Rule of Law Forum (2008), 83.
Li, above n. 8;
Guoyu Wang, Lun Zhongguo Hangtian Fa Lifa De Biyaoxing Yu Kexingxing [The Necessity and Viability of Chinese Space Legislation], 6 J Beijing Institute of Technology (Social Sciences Edition) (2012);
Haifa Zhao, Guanyu Zhongguo Kongjian Lifa De Ruogan Sikao [Some Thoughts on China’s Space Legislation], 5 Heilongjiang Social Science (2007).
Jian Yang, China Institute of Space Law Held its Annual Meeting in 2012, 1 Space Exploration (2013), 54.
First Announcement for 2013 APSCO Space Law & Policy Forum (www.apsco.int/AnnoucementOne.asp?ID=274).
China’s Space Activities, 2021 White Paper (28 January 2022), Section V para. (5).
Also see China’s Space Activities, 2000 White Paper (22 November 2000),
China’s Space Activities, 2006 White Paper (12 December 2006),
2011 White Paper (29 December 2011),
2016 White Paper (28 December 2016).
Fabio Tronchetti, Space Law and China (Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Planetary Science, February 2019), 9.
Notice on the issuance of the Medium- and Long-term Development Plan for National Civil Space Infrastructure (2015-2025), Fa Gai Gao Ji [2015] No. 2429, promulgated by National Development and Reform Commission in 2015.
2011 White Paper, above n.109, Section IV.
2021 White Paper, above n. 109.
2000 White Paper, above n. 109, Section I.
Minyang Nie, Space Privatization in China’s National Strategy of Military-Civilian Integration: An Appraisal of Critical Legal Challenges, 52 Space Policy (2020).
2021 White Paper, above n. 109, Section V, para. (4).
State Council, Guiding Opinions of the State Council on Innovation of Investment and Financing Mechanisms in Key Fields to Encourage Social Investment (16 November 2014) (https://lawinfochina.com/Display.aspx?lib=law&Cgid=238643).
Foreign Investment Law of China, adopted on 15 March 2019, effective on 1 January 2020;
Implementing Regulation of the Foreign Investment Law of China, adopted on 26 December, effective on 1 January 2020,
Negative List for Foreign Investment, firstly published in 2017 and renewed annually. Investment restriction on satellite television broadcast ground receiving facilities was left from the 2021 version of the Negative List.
See also Gao, above n. 85, 72.
With regard to international treaties and its own participation in international dialogues, China has consistently portrayed itself in the White Papers as a proponent of equality, mutual benefit, mutual complementarity, and common development. See also Wu, above n. 8.
International Telecommunication Union Constitution and Convention (most recent edition; 2022) (http://handle.itu.int/11.1004/020.1000/5.23.61.en.100).
Agreement Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO) (1971).
Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) (1976).
China National Space Administration releases Statement on China's Aerospace Contribution to the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (Xinhua, 2019) (http://m.xinhuanet.com/2019-04/24/c_1124411073.htm).
CNSA, “CNSA issued Eight Actions Statements” (https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c6841646/content.html).
UNCOPUOS, Report of the Legal Subcommittee on its sixty-first session, 28 March - 8 April 2022, 6.
“The Group of 77 is the largest intergovernmental organization of developing countries in the United Nations, which provides the means for the countries of the South to articulate and promote their collective economic interests and enhance their joint negotiating capacity on all major international economic issues within the United Nations system, and promote South-South cooperation for development.” About the Group of 77 (https://www.g77.org/doc/).
Statement by H.E. Ambassador Shen Jian at the Thematic Debate on Outer Space of the 78th Session of UNGA First Committee, 20 October 2023;
See also G77 and China Statement During the Sixty-First Session of the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (G77 and China Statement), 28 March-8 April 2022, delivered by H.E. Azzeddine Farhane, Ambassador, Permanent Representative of Morocco, on Agenda Item 12: General Exchange of Information on Non-Legally Binding United Nations Instruments on Outer Space.
UNCOPUOS, China’s General Statement, Report of the Legal Subcommittee on its sixty-first session, 31 March 2022.
China’s Statement on Item 3: General exchange of views, 26 Session,1039th meeting, 22 March 2023 (https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2023/Statements/22_PM/3_China_22_Mar_PM.pdf).
Xiaodan Wu, The International Lunar Research Station: China’s New Era of Space Cooperation and Its New Role in the Space Legal Order, (online) Space Policy (2022).
Andrew T. Guzman, How International Law Works: A Rational Choice Theory (Oxford University Press 2008).
China’s Statement on Item 10: General exchange of views on potential legal models for activities in the exploration, exploitation and utilization of space resources, 62nd Session of the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 24 March 2023 (https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2023/Statements/24_PM/10_China_21_Mar_AM_1.pdf).
China’s Statement on Item 3: General exchange of views, 62nd Session of the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 22 March 2023 (https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2023/Statements/24_PM/10_China_21_Mar_AM_1.pdf).
2021 White Paper, above n. 109.
International Lunar Research Station Guide for Partnership (ILRS): Guide for Partnership (ILRS), issued on 16 June 2021 (www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6812150/content.html);
Ling Xin, China’s Moon Ambitions Take Shape with Construction Road Map for Research Station, SCMP, 25 April 2023.
China and Russia to build lunar space station, BBC, 10 March 2021 (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-56342311);
Reportedly, the European Space Agency and the UAE Space Agency both have shown interest in ILRS but joined the US Lunar Gateway Program. See Sarwat Nasir, UAE joins Nasa space treaty as global plans to explore the Moon and Mars take shape, October 14, 2020 (https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/science/uae-joins-nasa-space-treaty-as-global-plansto-explore-the-moon-and-mars-take-shape-1.1093146).
Joint Statement between China National Space Administration and the State Space Corporation “Roscosmos” Regarding Cooperation for the Construction of the International Lunar Research Station, 29 April 2021, para. 1 https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6811967/content.html.
Wu, above n. 132, citing Jie Long, China’s Space Station Project and International Cooperation: Potential Models of Jurisdiction and Selected Legal Issues, 36 Space Policy 36 (2016), 37;
Jiang and Zhao, above n.8, 9.
Wu, ibid.
See for instance, Heng Wang, Selective Reshaping: China’s Paradigm Shift in International Economic Governance, 23 Journal of International Economic Law (2020);
Matthew S. Erie, Legal Systems Inside Out: American Legal Exceptionalism and China’s Dream of Legal Cosmopolitanism, University of Pennsylvania JIL, forthcoming.
Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects, 16 June 2014 (https://www.mfa.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/jks_665232/kjfywj_665252/201406/t20140 616_599726.html).
In this regard, China’s stance is predominantly congruent with that of Russia, in contrast to the stances taken by the UK and the US. The divergences propel the UN’ discourse regarding the prevention of an outer space arms race in opposite directions (https://press.un.org/en/2023/gadis3730.doc.htm).
CNSA, BRICS countries launch joint committee on space cooperation (26 May 2022) (https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6840322/content.html).
Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) (http://www.apsco.int/).
APSCO, APSCO and UNOOSA Signed Cooperation Agreement in Space Legislation (APSCO News, 16 February 2022) (http://www.apsco.int/html/comp1/content/NewsHighlights/2022-02-16/54-502-1.shtml).
Mark Williams Pontin, China’s Antisatellite Missile Test: Why? (MIT Technology Review, 8 March 2007) (https://www.technologyreview.com/2007/03/08/226350/chinas-antisatellite-missile-test-why/).
NASA Administrator Statement on Chinese Space Debris (www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-administrator-statement-on-chinese-space-debris).
Section 1340, United States Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act (2011) (https://www.congress.gov/112/plaws/publ10/PLAW112publ10.htm).
Submission by the Delegation of China to the Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities of the Legal Subcommittee of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (A/AC.105/C.2/2024/CRP.5) (https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/space-resources/LSC2024/English_Chinas_submis sion_to_the_working_group_on_space_resources.pdf).
Ibid., 3.
See also Kevin Pollpeter, China’s space program: making China Strong, Rich, and Respected, 15 Asia Policy (2020) 12–18.
MIT Technology Review, China’s surging private space industry is out to challenge the US, 2021 (www.technologyreview.com/2021/01/21/1016513/china-privatecommercial-space-industry-dominance).
Hofmann and Blount, above n. 66.
CNSA, Rules for Management of International Cooperation in Lunar Samples and Scientific Data, promulgated on 2 August 2023 (https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10086003/content.html).