international criminal law; crimes against humanity; Migration
Résumé :
[en] The systematic lack of accountability for migrant rights violations occurring in the context of migration control and other deterrence measures has been contested in theory and practice. While the scholarship has explored various accountability ven- ues above and beyond international refugee law and within specialised regimes, new litigation strategies have accountability across multiple judicial and quasi-judicial fora at national and international levels. Against the background of this multilevel litiga- tion strategy, international criminal law has emerged as a new site for accountabil- ity for violence against migrants at the borders of Europe. Starting from the Libyan case study, this article will examine the potential of international criminal law in the struggle for accountability for migrant rights violations. It will discuss whether and how qualifying migrant rights violations as crimes against humanity can illuminate certain aspects of violence against migrants at the borders of Europe while concretely challenging and addressing contemporary contactless forms of migration deterrence.
Disciplines :
Droit européen & international
Auteur, co-auteur :
RAIMONDO, Giulia ; University of Luxembourg > Faculty of Law, Economics and Finance (FDEF) > Department of Law (DL)
Co-auteurs externes :
no
Langue du document :
Anglais
Titre :
Invisible Crimes: Accountability for Crimes against Migrants in Libya
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Idem, Article 5.
Idem, Article 5(2).
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See also: ICC, Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, ICC-01/05-01/08, Pre-Trial Chamber II, 15 June 2009, para 83.
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Ibidem.
ICTY, Kunarac, Case No IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1-A, Appeals Judgement, 12 June 2002, para 90.
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CJEU, Case 26/62, van Gend & Loos, 5 February 1963, ECLI:EU:C:1963:1, para 3.
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ICC, Prosecutor v. Bosco
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EoC, Article 7(2).
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See supra note 55.
Amnesty International, Between the devil and the deep blue sea, August 2018.
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Moreno-Lax and Giuffre, supra note 20
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EoC, at 3.
Schabas, supra note 42, at 172.
Article 7(2)(c), Rome Statute.
ICTY, Kunarac, Appeals Judgement, Case No IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1-A, 12 June 2002, para 117 (footnotes omitted).
EoC, at 6.
C. Stahn, A Critical Introduction to International Criminal Law (Cambridge University Press 2019) at 59.
ICC, Katanga, supra note 48, para 975.
For a detailed discussion see: Sara Palacios-Arapiles, ‘The Interpretation of Slavery before the International Criminal Court:
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ICC, Ongwen, Trial Chamber XI, Case No ICC-02/04-01/15-1762-Red, 4 February 2021, para 2714.
Idem, para 2711.
Article 3(b), Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, 2237 UNTS 319, 15 November 2000.
ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda (Trial Chamber vi) icc-01/04-02/06, 8 July 2019, para 952.
See also: J. Allain, Slavery in International Law: Of Human Exploitation and Trafficking (Brill Nijhoff 2012), at 219-220.
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Eg: ICC, Fourteenth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court to the United Nations Security Council Pursuant to UNSCR 1970 (2011), 8 November 2017, para 35.
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Article 7(1)(g)-2-3.
Article 7(2)(d) of the Rome Statute.
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See extensively: Chetail supra note 21, at 924-929.
Ibid, at 926.
Article 31, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 189 UNTS 150, 28 July 1951.
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M. Aksenova, Complicity in International Criminal Law (Hart Publishing 2016).
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Kalpouzos, supra note 21.
Eg: UNML and OHCHR, “Detained and dehumanised” Report on human rights abuses against migrants in Libya, 13 December 2016
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ICTY, Kordic and Cerkez, IT-95-14/2-T, Trial Judgement, 26 February 2001, para 302.
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Article 7, American Convention on Human Rights, 22 November 1969
Article 6, African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 27 June 1981, CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58
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UNGA, Protection of Migrants, Un Doc A/RES/70/147, 25 February 2016, para 4(a)
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ICTY, Krnojelac, Case No IT-97-25-T, Trial Chamber II, 15 March 2002, para 115, footnote 347.
See, among many others: Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, Unlawful Death of Refugees and Migrants, UN Doc A/72/335, 15 August 2017
Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, A/HRC/37/50, 26 February 2018.
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EoC, pp 5, footnote 14.
ICC, Bemba Gombo, supra note 32, para 193.
Amnesty International, Between the devil and the deep blue sea, supra note 58, at 17
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ICC, Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes, 2014 at 3.
EoC, Idem, Article 7(1)(g)-1-6.
Idem, Article 7(1)(g)-6.
A/HRC/52/83, supra note 55, paras 156.
M. Albahari, Crimes of Peace: Mediterranean Migrations at the World’s Deadliest Border (University of Pennsylvania Press 2015) 114.
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Schabas, supra note 42, at 203.
Article 7(2)(i), Rome Statute.
EoC, 11, footnotes omitted.
Kalpouzos and Mann, supra note 6, at 16.
The ICTY found that, given their different purposes, the broader definition of persecution in international refugee and human rights law is not applicable in international criminal law. ICTY, Kupreskic, Case No IT-95-16-T, Trial Chamber, 14 January 2000, para 589.
ICTY, Krnojelac, Case No IT-97-25-T, Appeals Judgment, 17 September 2003, para 185.
IACtHR, Advisory Opinion OC-18/03, Juridical Condition and Rights of Undocumented Migrants, 2003, para 119.
See: CERD, Statement Racial discrimination and enslavement of migrants in Libya, 7 December 2017
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ICTY, Krnojelac, Case No IT-97-25-T, Trial Chamber II, 15 March 2002, para 436
ICTY, Kordic and Cerkez, Case No IT-95-14/2-A, Appeals Judgment, 17 December 2004, para 111.
ICTY, Kordic and Cerkez, supra note 127, para 111.
ICC, Ongwen, supra note 74, para 2739.
ICC, Katanga, supra note 31, para 448.
A/HRC/52/83, supra note 50, para 46.
ICC, Katanga, supra note 48, paras 1386-1387.
This was however disputed as it was argued that Article 25(3) is based on a value-oriented hierarchy whereby principal liability is at the apex. See: ICC, Lubanga, Case No, ICC-01/04-01/06 A 5, 1 December 2014, para 462.
Article 25(3) of the Rome Statute.
ICC, Lubanga, Pre-Trial Chamber I, Case No ICC-01/04-01/06, 29 January 2007, para 330.
Idem, paras 342 and 347
ICC, Lubanga, Pre-Trial Chamber II, Case No ICC-01/04-01/07, 7 March 2014, para 925.
See: ICC, Ahmad Harun and Ali Kushayb, Case No ICC-02/05-01/07, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 27 April 2007, para 78.
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ICC, Mbarushimana, Case No ICC-01/04-01/10, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 16 December 2011, para 279.
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Antonio Coco and Tom Gal, ‘Losing Direction: The ICTY Appeals Chamber’s Controversial šić’ (2014) 12 Journal of International Criminal Justice 345, at 563-565.Approach to Aiding and Abetting in Peri
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M. J. Ventura, ‘Aiding and Abetting’ in J. de Hemptinne, R. Roth, E. van Sliedregt, M. Cupido, M. J. Ventura and L. Yanev (eds), Modes of Liability in International Criminal Law (Cambridge University Press 2019).
ICC, Mbarushimana, Case No ICC-01/04-01/10, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 16 December 2011, para 276.
ICC, Katanga, supra note 48, para 1633.
Kalpouzos supra note 21, at 591.
UN Security Council, Resolution S/RES/1970 (2011), 26 February 2011.
See: ICC, The States Parties to the Rome Statute, available at: https://asp.icccpi.int/en_menus/asp/states%20parties/Pages/the%20states%20parties%20to%20the%20rome%20statute.aspx.
Article 12, Agreement between the International Criminal Court and the European Union on Cooperation and Assistance, ICC-PRES/01-01-06, 10 May 2006.
Article 17, Rome Statute.
See extensively: S. M. H. Nouwen, Complementarity in the Line of Fire (Cambridge University Press 2013) 34-110.
See: Another Lorenzo Tondo, ‘Libya releases man described as one of world’s most wanted human traffickers’ (The Guardian, 13 April 2021), available at: https://www
For example, Article 10 of the Italian Criminal Code extends Italian jurisdiction to crimes committed abroad, by or against a foreigner, under very specific circumstances, including the presence of the perpetrator on Italian territory.
Corte d’Assise di Milano, RG 10/17, 10 October 2017
Corte d’Assise di Agrigento, RG 3/18, 12 June 2018
Tribunale di Messina, RGNR 5925/2019, 28 May 2020.
FIDH, ECCHR and LFJL, supra note 4, para 776.
M. van der Woude, V. Barker and J. van der Leun, ‘Crimmigration in Europe’ (2017) 14 European Journal of Criminology 3.
E. Guild, Criminalisation of Migration in Europe: Human Rights Implications, (Council of Europe Issue Paper, 2009).
E. Guild, ‘Serious International Crimes, Human Rights, and Forced Migration’, When border control operations become crimes against humanity (Routledge 2022).
E. Fronza and C. Meloni, ‘The Draft Italian Code of International Crimes’ (2022) 20 Journal of International Criminal Justice 1027.
L. Prosperi, ‘“With or Without You”: Why Italy Should Incorporate Crimes Against Humanity and Genocide Into Its National Legal System’ (2021) 21 International Criminal Law Review.
A. Oriolo, ‘International Criminal Court in National Systems: Italy’ (2021) 2 Journal of International Criminal Law 18.
ICC, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi, Case No ICC-01/11-01/11-344-Red, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 31 May 2013, paras 70-71.
S. Zirulia and G. Martinico, ‘Criminalising Migrants and Securitising Borders: The Italian “No Way” Model in the Age of Populism’ in Stijn Smet and Vladislava Stoyanova (eds), Migrants’ Rights, Populism and Legal Resilience in Europe (Cambridge University Press 2022).
Article 53, Rome Statute.
Mann supra note 21, at 1185.
Kalpouzos, supra note 21, at 594.
See extensively: Fink, supra note 87, Chapter 4.
Writing to Hannah Arendt regarding the Eichmann trial Carl Jaspers emphasised that: ‘Something other than law is at stake here - and to address it in legal terms is a mistake’. Quoted in: L. Douglas, The Memory of Judgment: Making Law and History in the Trials of the Holocaust (Yale University Press 2001).
Barrie Sander, ‘The Expressive Turn of International Criminal Justice: A Field in Search of Meaning’ (2019) 32 Leiden Journal of International Law 851.
J. E. Alvarez, ‘Rush to Closure: Lessons of the Tadic Judgment’, (1997-1998) 96 Michigan Law Review 2031
P. Akhavan, ‘Beyond Impunity: Can International Criminal Justice Prevent Future Atrocities?’ (2001) 95 American Journal of International Law 7.
H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (Viking Press 1963).
M. Koskenniemi, ‘Between Impunity and Show Trials’ (2002) 6 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law Online 1, at 8.
A. Nollkaemper, ‘Concurrence between Individual Responsibility and State Responsibility in International Law’ (2003) 52 International & Comparative Law Quarterly 615.
Arendt, supra note 192.
Itamar Mann observes, however, that despite certain crimes - because of their manifest unlawfulness - do not require the consciousness of wrongdoing, there is still no consensus about the values of the international community this increases the chances of mistakes of law. I. Mann, ‘Eichmann’s Mistake: The Problem of Thoughtlessness in International Criminal Law’ (2020) 33 Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence 145. More generally
A. Coco, The Defence of Mistake of Law in International Criminal Law: A Study on Ignorance and Blame (Oxford University Press 2022).
H. Arendt, Responsibility and Judgment (Knopf Doubleday 2009).
See generally: Z. Bauman, Strangers at Our Door (Polity 2016).
HRC, Technical assistance and capacity-building to improve human rights in Libya, A/HRC/50/L.23, 4 July 2022.
Kalpouzos and Mann, supra note 6
E T. Achiume, ‘Migration as Decolonization’ (2019) 71 Stanford Law Review 1509.
R. C DeFalco, Invisible Atrocities (Cambridge University Press 2022).
Kalpouzos supra note 21, at 597.
N. De Genova, ‘The border spectacle of migrant ‘victimisation’’ in Beyond Borders (Ritimo 2019).
