[en] Much has been made in recent years of the transformative potential of digital resources and historical data for historical research. Historians seem to be flooded with retro-digitized and born-digital materials and tend to take these for granted, grateful for the opportunities they afford. In a research environment that increasingly privileges what is available online, the questions of why, where, and how we can access what we can access, and how it affects historical research have become ever more urgent. This article proposes a framework through which to contextualize the politics of (digital) heritage preservation, and a model to analyze its most important political dimensions, drawing upon literature from the digital humanities & history as well as archival, library and information science. The first part will outline the global dimensions of the politics of digital cultural heritage, focusing on developments between and within the Global North and South, framed within the broader context of the politics of heritage and its preservation. The second part surveys the history and current state of digitization and offers a structured analysis of the process of digitization and its political dimensions. Choices and decisions about selection for digitization, how to catalogue, classify and what metadata to add are all political in nature and have political consequences, and the same is true for access. The article concludes with several recommendations and a plea to acknowledge the importance of digital cataloguing in enabling access to the global human record.
Centre de recherche :
- Luxembourg Centre for Contemporary and Digital History (C2DH) > Contemporary European History (EHI)
Disciplines :
Histoire
Auteur, co-auteur :
ZAAGSMA, Gerben ; University of Luxembourg > Luxembourg Centre for Contemporary and Digital History (C2DH) > Contemporary European History
Anderson, S. and Hart, G. (2016). Challenges in digitising liberation archives: a case study. Innovation: Journal of Appropriate Librarianship and Information Work in Southern Africa (53): 21–38.
Anziska, S. (2019). Special document file. The Erasure of the Nakba in Israel’s archives. Journal of Palestine Studies, 49(1): 64–76.
Baker, N. (2002). Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper. London: Vintage.
Baker, S. (2018). Community Custodians of Popular Music’s Past: A DIY Approach to Heritage. London: Routledge.
Baets, A. de (2009). Responsible History. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Baets, A. de (2019). Crimes against History. London: Routledge.
Baker, J. (2019). Decolonial Futures for Colonial Metadata, 1838–Present. Institute of Historical Research Digital History Seminar, London, 21 May 2019.
Ballouz, I. (2018). Die digitale Rettung des syrischen Kulturerbes. Flächennutzungsmonitoring IX. Nachhaltigkeit der Siedlungs- und Verkehrsentwicklung? 73: 303–15.
Balogun, T. (2018). The Nexus between digitization, preservation and access in the context of selection of materials for archives. Library Philosophy and Practice: 1–15.
Barringer, T., Wallace, M., and Damen, J. (eds) (2014). African Studies in the Digital Age: DisConnects? Leiden: Brill.
Bastian, J. A. and Flinn, A. (eds) (2020). Community Archives, Community Spaces: Heritage, Memory and Identity. London: Facet Publishing.
Bérard, R., Girault, B., Rideau-Kikuchi, C., and Boucheron, P. (2020). Initiation aux Études Historiques. Paris: Nouveau Monde Éditions.
Berger, S. and Lorenz, C. (eds) (2010). Nationalizing the Past: Historians as Nation Builders in Modern Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Berger, S. (2013). The role of national archives in constructing national master narratives in Europe. Archival Science, 13(1): 1–22.
Berry, D. M. and Fagerjord, A. (2017). Digital Humanities: Knowledge and Critique in a Digital Age. Cambridge: Polity.
Blaney, J., Winters, J., Milligan, S., and Steer, M. (2021). Doing Digital History. A Beginner’s Guide to Working with Text as Data. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Blouin, F. X. and Rosenberg, W. G. (eds) (2010). Archives, Documentation, and Institutions of Social Memory: Essays from the Sawyer Seminar. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Blouin, F. X. and Rosenberg, W. G. (eds) (2011). Processing the Past: Contesting Authority in History and the Archives. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Boylan, R. (1986). The cooperative Africana microform project. Microform & Digitization Review, 15(3): 167–71.
Brown, R. H. and Davis-Brown, B. (1998). The making of memory: The politics of archives, libraries and museums in the construction of national consciousness. History of the Human Sciences, 11(4): 17–32.
Burkhardt, M. (2017). Vorüberlegungen zu einer Kritik der Algorithmen an der Grenze von Wissen und Nichtwissen. Jahrbuch Technikphilosophie, 3: 55–67.
Cady, S. A. (1990). The electronic revolution in libraries: Microfilm Déja vu? College and Research Libraries, 51(4): 374–86.
Carter, R. G. S. (2006). Of things said and unsaid: Power, archival silences, and power in silence. Archivaria, 61: 215–33.
Chamelot, F., Hiribarren, V., and Rodet, M. (2020). Archives, the digital turn, and governance in Africa. History in Africa, 47(1): 101–18.
Christen, K. (2011). Opening archives: Respectful repatriation. The American Archivist, 74(1): 185–210.
Christen, K., Davis, L., Griffith, Z., and Neely, J. (2018). Traditional knowledge and digital archives: An interview with Kim Christen. DisClosure: A Journal of Social Theory, 27(1): 8–14.
Coburn, J. (2020). Defending the digital: Awareness of digital selectivity in historical research practice. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000620918647.
Colavizza, G., Blanke, T., Jeurgens, C., et al. (2021). Archives and AI: An overview of current debates and future perspectives. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 15(1): 1–15.
Cook, T. (2010). Remembering the future: Appraisal of records and the role of archives in constructing social memory. In Blouin, F. X. and Rosenberg, W. G. (eds), Archives, Documentation, and Institutions of Social Memory: Essays from the Sawyer Seminar. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 169–182.
Cook, T. (2011). ‘We are what we keep; we keep what we are’: Archival appraisal past, present and future. Journal of the Society of Archivists, 32(2): 173–89.
Corfield, P. L. and Hitchcock, T. (2022). Becoming a Historian: An Informal Guide. London: University of London Press.
Crymble, A. (2021). Technology and the Historian. Transformations in the Digital Age. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Curtin, P. D. (1960). The archives of tropical Africa: A reconnaissance. The Journal of African History, 1(1): 129–47.
De Kosnik, A. (2016). Rogue Archives: Digital Cultural Memory and Media Users. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Derrida, J. (1995). Archive fever: A Freudian impression. Diacritics, 25(2): 9–63.
Dommann, M. (2008). Papierstau und informationsfluss: Die normierung der bibliothekskopie. Historische Anthropologie, 16(1): 31–54.
Drucker, J. (2016). At the intersection of computational methods and the traditional humanities. In Simanowski, R. (ed.), Digital Humanities and Digital Media: Conversations on Politics, Culture, Aesthetics and Literacy. London: Open Humanities Press, pp. 43–68.
Duranti, L. and Shaffer, E. (eds) (2012). The Memory of the World in the Digital Age: Digitization and Preservation. Vancouver: UNESCO.
Eckert, G. and Beigel, T. (2019). Historisch Arbeiten: Handreichung zum Geschichtsstudium. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Edmond, J., Horsley, N., Lehmann, J., and Priddy, M. (2022). The Trouble with Big Data. How Datafication Displaces Cultural Practices. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Edmondson, R., Lothar, J., and Prodan, A. C. (eds) (2020). The UNESCO Memory of the World Programme: Key Aspects and Recent Developments. Cham: Springer.
Ehrmann, M., Bunout, E., and Düring, M. (2019). Historical Newspaper User Interfaces: A Review. Athens: IFLA World Library and Information Congress.
Es, K. van, Schäfer, M. K., and Wieringa, M. (2021). Tool Criticism and the Computational Turn. A “Methodological Moment” in Media and Communication Studies. Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft, 69 (1): 46–64.
Espinosa de los Monteros, P. (2019). Decolonial information practices: Repatriating and stewarding the Popol Vuh online. Preservation, Digital Technology & Culture, 48(3–4): 107–19.
Evans, F. B. (1970). The Selection and Preparation of Records for Publication on Microfilm. Washington: National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration.
Fernandez, M. V. (2018). The Coloniality of Metadata: A Critical Data Analysis of the Archive of Early American Images at the John Carter Brown Library. PhD Thesis. University of Texas, Austin.
Fickers, A. (2020). Update für die Hermeneutik. Geschichtswissenschaft auf dem Weg zur digitalen Forensik. Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History, 17(1): 157–68.
Fickers, A. and van der Heijden, T. (2020). Inside the trading zone: Thinkering in a digital history lab. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 14(3).
Fiormonte, D. (2012). Towards a cultural critique of the digital humanities. Historical Social Research, 37(3): 59–76.
Fiormonte, D. (2017). Digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge. Digital Studies/Le Champ Numérique, 7(1): 5, 1–18.
Foley, T. (2018). ‘Slavery, Memory, and Reconciliation through Digital Archives’, in European Social Science History Conference, Queen’s University Belfast, 4 April 2018.
Foster, C. (2010). Microfilming activities of the historical records survey, 1935–42. The American Archivist, 48(1): 45–55.
Föhr, P. (2017). Historische Quellenkritik im Digitalen Zeitalter. Ph.D. thesis, Universität Basel.
Foucault, M. (1972). The Archaeology of Knowledge. London: Tavistock Publications.
Francomano, E. C. and Bamford, H. (2022). Whose digital middle ages? Accessibility in digital medieval manuscript culture. Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, 14(1): 15–27.
Fretwell, J. (1908). Photographic copying in libraries. Library Journal, 33: 223–4.
Friedrich, M. (2014). Vom Exzerpt zum Photoauftrag zur Datenbank. Technische Rahmenbedingungen historiographischer Forschung in Archiven und Bibliotheken und ihr Wandel seit dem 19. Jahrhundert. Historische Anthropologie, 22(4): 278–98.
Galen, C. W. V. (2019). Creating an audience: Experiences from the Surinamese slave registers crowdsourcing project. Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History, 52(3): 178–94.
Gantner, E. and Dovbysh, O. (2019). Digitization of memory and politics in Eastern Europe. EuropeNow. https://www.europenowjournal.org/2019/09/09/on-digitalization-of-memory-and-politics-of-e-heritage-in-eastern-europe/ (accessed 14 June 2021).
Garaba, F. (2015). ‘The Timbuktu Manuscripts: A Model for Preservation in Africa’, in IFLA WLIC 2015, Cape Town, South Africa.
Garaba, F. (2021). Migrated archives. Journal of the South African Society of Archivists, 54: 1–11.
Gentry, K. and Smith, L. (2019). Critical heritage studies and the legacies of the late-twentieth century heritage canon. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 25(11): 1148–68.
Gertz, J. (1999). Selection for preservation in the digital age. Library Resources & Technical Services, 44(2): 97–104.
Gilliland, A. J., McKemmish, S., and Lau, A. J. (eds) (2016). Research in the Archival Multiverse. Clayton: Monash University Publishing.
Gjuricová, A. (2019). European history reloaded: The case of Czechoslovak communism. EuropeNow. https://www.europenowjournal.org/2019/09/09/european-history-reloaded/ (accessed 14 June 2021).
Golubev, A. (2021). Digitizing archives in Russia: Epistemic sovereignty and its challenges in the digital age. In Gritsenko, D., Wijermars, M. and Kopotev, M. (eds), The Palgrave Handbook of Digital Russia Studies. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 353–69.
Gomez, A. (2019). The making of the digital working class: Social history, digital humanities, and its sources. In Gold, M. K. and Klein, L. F. (eds), Debates in the Digital Humanities 2019. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 399–405.
Gordon, A. A. (2014). Eurocentric Archival Knowledge Production and Decolonizing Archival Theory. Ph.D. thesis, York University, Toronto. https://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/handle/10315/29935 (accessed 10 April 2022).
Gould, S. and Ebdon, R. (1999). IFLA/UNESCO Survey on Digitisation and Preservation. Boston Spa: IFLA/UNESCO.
Grallert, T. (2021). Catch me if you can! Approaching the Arabic Press of the Late Ottoman Eastern Mediterranean through digital history. Geschichte Und Gesellschaft, 46(1): 58–89.
de Groot, J. (2020). Ancestry.com and the evolving nature of historical information companies. The Public Historian, 42(1): 8–28.
Guiliano, J. and Heitman, C. (2019). Difficult heritage and the complexities of indigenous data. Journal of Cultural Analytics, 4(1): 1–25.
Hall, S. (1999). Whose heritage? Un-settling ‘The Heritage’. Re-imagining the post-nation. Third Text, 13(49): 3–13.
Hauswedell, T., Nyhan, J., Beals, M. H., Terras, M., and Bell, E. (2020). Of global reach yet of situated contexts: An examination of the implicit and explicit selection criteria that shape digital archives of historical newspapers. Archival Science, 20(2): 139–65.
Harrison, R. (2013). Heritage: Critical Approaches. London: Routledge.
Hedstrom, M. (2002). Archives, memory, and interfaces with the past. Archival Science, 2(1–2): 21–43.
Hitchcock, T. (2012). A five minute rant for the consortium of European research libraries. Historyonics, 29 October 2012. http://historyonics.blogspot.com/2012/10/a-five-minute-rantfor-consortium-of.html (accessed 7 October 2019).
Hobbs, A. (2013). The deleterious dominance of the times in nineteenth-century scholarship. Journal of Victorian Culture, 18(4): 472–97.
Huistra, H. and Mellink, B. (2016). Phrasing history: Selecting sources in digital repositories. Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History, 49(4): 220–9.
Howell, J. B. and Scheven, Y. (1997). Guides, collections and ancillary materials to African archival resources in the United States. Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography, 1: 1–82.
Jacobsen, T., Punzalan, R. L., and Hedstrom, M. L. (2013). Invoking “collective memory”: Mapping the emergence of a concept in archival science. Archival Science, 13(2–3): 217–51.
Jakubowski, A., Hausler, K., and Fiorentini F. (eds) (2019). Cultural Heritage in the European Union: A Critical Inquiry Into Law and Policy. Leiden: Brill.
Jensen, H. S. (2021). Digital archival literacy for (all) historians. Media History, 27(2): 251–65.
Jeurgens, C. (2019). Geschiedenisschaamte? Het Witte Archief Onder Vuur. Ketelaarlezing 2019. Den Haag: Nationaal Archief.
Jeurgens, C. and Karabinos, M. (2020). Paradoxes of curating colonial memory. Archival Science, 20(3): 199–220.
Kamp, J., Legêne, S., Rossum, M. V., and Rümke, S. (2016). Geschiedenis Schrijven! Wegwijzer voor Historici. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Kamp, J., Legêne, S., Rossum, M. V., and Rümke, S. (2018). Writing History! A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Katuu, S. (2015). The development of archives and records management education and training in Africa—challenges and opportunities. Archives and Manuscripts, 43(2): 96–119.
Kassow, S. D. (2007). Who Will Write Our History? Emanuel Ringelblum, the Warsaw Ghetto, and the Oyneg Shabes Archive. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Kerssens, N. (2017). When search engines stopped being human: Menu interfaces and the rise of the ideological nature of algorithmic search. Internet Histories, 1(3): 219–37.
Kessler, M., Merz, U., and Schibler, B. (2021). DIGIARCH 2021: Kulturerbe im digitalen Zeitalter. Patrimoine culturel à l’ère numérique. Basel: Schwabe Verlag.
Ketelaar, E. (2008). Archives as spaces of memory. Journal of the Society of Archivists, 29(1): 9–27.
Ketelaar, E. (2017). Archival turns and returns. Studies of the archive. In Gilliland, A. J., McKemmish, S., and Lau, A. J. (eds), Research in the Archival Multiverse. Clayton: Monash University Publishing, pp. 228–68.
Kizhner, I., Terras, M., Rumyantsev, M., et al. (2021). Digital cultural colonialism: Measuring bias in aggregated digitized content held in Google Arts and Culture. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, 36(3): 607–40.
Kominko, M. (ed) (2015). From Dust to Digital: Ten Years of the Endangered Archives Programme. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers.
Krumbacher, K. (1906). Die Photographie im Dienste der Geisteswissenschaften. Leipzig: Teubner B.G..
Lalu, P. (2007). The virtual stampede for Africa: Digitisation, post-coloniality and archives of the liberation struggles in Southern Africa. Innovation: Journal of Appropriate Librarianship and Information Work in Southern Africa, 34: 28–44.
Lee, B. (2021). Compounded Mediation: A Data Archaeology of the Newspaper Navigator Dataset. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 15(4).
Levi, A. S. (2021). Keynote Lecture—The Things We Think We Link: The Cascading Violence of Colonial Archives, Linked Pasts VII Symposium, 13–21 December 2021, Ghent University.
Lewi, H., Smith, W., vom Lehn, D. and Cooke, S. (eds) (2019). The Routledge International Handbook of New Digital Practices in Galleries, Libraries, Archives, Museums and Heritage Sites. London: Routledge.
Liu, A. (2012). Where is cultural criticism in the digital humanities? In Gold, M. K. (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 490–509.
Lowry, J. (ed.) (2017). Displaced Archives. London: Routledge.
Ma, R. (2020). Translational challenges in cross-cultural digitization ethics: The case of Chinese Marriage Documents, 1909–1997. Libri 70(4): 269–77.
Manoff, M. (2004). Theories of the archive from across the disciplines. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 4(1): 9–25.
Manoff, M. (2016). Mapping archival silence: Technology and the historical record. In Foscarini, F., MacNeil, H., Mak, B., and Oliver, G. (eds). Engaging With Records and Archives: Histories and Theories. London: Facet Publishing, pp. 63–82.
Manzuch, Z. (2017). Ethical issues in digitization of cultural heritage. Journal of Contemporary Archival Studies, 4: 1–18.
Marciano, R., et al. (2019). ‘Reframing Digital Curation Practices through a Computational Thinking Framework’, in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Big Data, pp. 3126–3135.
Milligan, I. (2013). Illusionary order: Online databases, optical character recognition, and Canadian history, 1997–2010. Canadian Historical Review, 94(4): 540–69.
Mizruchi, L. (ed.) (2020). Libraries and Archives in the Digital Age. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Münster, S., et al. (2021). Teaching digital cultural heritage and digital humanities the current state and prospects. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLVI-M-1-2021: 471–8.
Hedges, M., Marciano, R., and Goudarouli, E. (2022). Introduction to the special issue on computational archival science. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 15(1): 1–2.
Masenya, T. M. (2021). The use of metadata systems for the preservation of digital records in cultural heritage institutions. Journal of the South African Society of Archivists, 54: 55–70.
McCauley, D. (ed.) (2016). A new age of culture. The digitisation of arts and heritage. Economist Intelligence Unit.
Mihai, A. (2015). The politics of online reproduction of Shakespeare. Revista Transilvania, 8: 15–21.
Milligan, I. (2019). History in the Age of Abundance? How the Web Is Transforming Historical Research. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Mills, A. (2015). User impact on selection, digitization, and the development of digital special collections. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 21(2): 160–9.
Moore, N. and Whelan, Y. (eds) (2007). Heritage, Memory and the Politics of Identity: New Perspectives on the Cultural Landscape. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Morris, R. (1941). The challenge of historical materials. The American Archivist, 4(2): 91–116.
Moss, M., Thomas, D., and Gollins, T. (2018). Artificial fibers—the implications of the digital for archival access. Frontiers in Digital Humanities, 5.
Muehlberger, G., et al. (2019). Transforming scholarship in the archives through handwritten text recognition. Journal of Documentation, 75(5): 954–76.
Nowatzki, R. (2021). From datum to databases: Digital humanities, slavery, and archival reparations. The American Archivist, 83(2): 429–48.
Niggemann, E., De Decker, J., and Lévy, M. (2011). The New Renaissance. Report of the Comité des Sages—Reflection Group on Bringing Europe’s Cultural Heritage Online, Brussels.
Odumosu, T. (2020). The crying child: On colonial archives, digitization, and ethics of care in the cultural commons. Current Anthropology, 61(22): 289–302.
Öhman, C. (2022). The case for a digital world heritage label. Information & Culture, 57(1): 82–95.
Ortolja-Baird, A. and Nyhan, J. (2021). Encoding the haunting of an object catalogue: On the potential of digital technologies to perpetuate or subvert the silence and bias of the Early-Modern Archive. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities.
Ozban, E. (2014). The Politics of Archive and Counter-archival Practices: The Case of Geziparkarsiv. MA thesis, Goldsmiths College, London.
Padilla, T., Allen, L., Frost, H., et al. (2019). Always Already Computational: Collections as Data: Final Report, Libraries at University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Pandey, R. and Kumar, V. (2020). Exploring the impediments to digitization and digital preservation of cultural heritage resources: A selective review. Preservation, Digital Technology & Culture, 49(1): 26–37.
Pfanzelter, E., et al. (2020). Digital interfaces of historical newspapers: Opportunities, restrictions and recommendations. Journal of Data Mining and Digital Humanities, 27: 1–27.
Pickover, M. (2014). Patrimony, Power and Politics: Selecting, Constructing and Preserving Digital Heritage Content in South Africa and Africa. IFLA WLIC.
Prescott, A. (2012). Making the digital human: Anxieties, possibilities, challenges. Keynote Digital. Humanities@Oxford Summer School. Digital Riffs, 6 July 2012. http://digitalriffs.blogspot.nl/2012/07/making-digital-human-anxieties.html.
Presner, T. (2016). The ethics of the algorithm. Close and distant listening to the Shoah Foundation visual history archive. In Fogu, C., Kansteiner, W., and Presner, T. S. (eds), Probing the Ethics of Holocaust Culture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 175–202.
Putnam, L. (2016). The transnational and the text-searchable: Digitized sources and the shadows they cast. The transnational and the text-searchable. The American Historical Review, 121(2): 377–402.
Rafferty, P. (2001). The representation of knowledge in library classification schemes. Knowledge Organization, 28(4): 180–91.
Reem, A. H., et al. (2021). Making African Connections: Decolonial Futures for Colonial Collections. Initial Findings and Recommendations. Reports and working papers, University of Sussex.
Rehbein, M. (2016). It’s our department: On ethical issues of digital humanities. In Richts K. and Stadler P. (eds), Ei, dem alten Herrn Zoll’ ich Achtung gern: Festschrift für Joachim Veit zum 60. Geburtstag. München: Allitera Verlag, pp. 631–54.
Ringel, S. (2020). Interfacing with the past: Archival digitization and the construction of digital depository. Convergence, 27(4).
Risam, R. (2019). New Digital Worlds: Postcolonial Digital Humanities in Theory, Praxis, and Pedagogy. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Rolan, G., Humphries, G., Jeffrey, L., Samaras, E., Antsoupova, T., and Stuart, K. (2019). More human than human? Artificial intelligence in the archive. Archives and Manuscripts, 47(2): 179–203.
Romein, C. A., et al. (2020). State of the field: Digital history. History, 105(365): 291–312.
Rosenzweig, R. (2003). Scarcity or abundance? Preserving the past in a digital era. The American Historical Review, 108(3): 735–62, 39.
Rusert, B. (2017). New world: The impact of digitization on the study of slavery. American Literary History, 29(2): 267–86.
Saber, D. and Long, P. (2017). ‘I will not leave, my freedom is more precious than my blood’. From affect to precarity: Crowd-sourced citizen archives as memories of the Syrian war. Archives and Records, 38(1): 80–99.
Scholz, H., et al. (2017). Europeana Content Strategy. Getting the Right Content to the Right User at the Right Time. Den Haag: Europeana Foundation. https://pro.europeana.eu/files/Europeana_Professional/Publications/Europeana%20Content%20Strategy.pdf (accessed 30 December 2020).
Sela, R. (2018). The genealogy of colonial plunder and erasure—Israel’s control over palestinian archives. Social Semiotics, 28(2): 201–29.
Shammout, B. (2018). Digitale Erhaltung des Auditiven und Visuellen Kulturerbes Palästinas. Grundlagen und Perspektiven. Baden-Baden: Tectum Verlag.
Sinn, D. (2013). The use context of digital archival collections: Mapping with historical research topics and the content of digital archival collections. Preservation, Digital Technology & Culture (PDT&C), 42(2): 73–86.
Sinn, D. and Soares, N. (2014). Historians’ use of digital archival collections: The web, historical scholarship, and archival research. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 65(9): 1794–809.
Smith, S. D. (2016). On the ethics of technology and testimony, In Fogu, C., Kansteiner, W., and Presner, T. S. (eds), Probing the Ethics of Holocaust Culture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 203–17.
Smisor, G. T. (1942). Collecting a library of rarities on microfilm. Journal of Documentary Reproduction, 5: 98–102.
Smith, L. (2006). Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge.
Smith, L. (2021). Critical heritage studies. In Bloomsbury History: Theory and Method Articles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350970885.071.
Stancic, H. (2018). Computational archival science. Moderna Arhivistika, 1(2): 323–330.
Sternfeld, J. (2011). Archival theory and digital historiography: Selection, search, and metadata as archival processes for assessing historical contextualization. The American Archivist, 74(2): 544–75.
Stoler, A. L. (2010). Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Stork, L., Weber, A., Gassó Miracle, E., et al. (2019). Semantic Annotation of Natural History Collections. Journal of Web Semantics, 59.
Story, D. J., Guldi, J., Hitchcock, T., et al. (2020). History’s Future in the Age of the Internet. The American Historical Review 125 (4): 1337–46.
Tanner, S. and Kahn, R. J. (2014). Building futures: The role of digital collections in shaping national identity in Africa. In Barringer, T., Wallace, M., and Damen, J. (eds), African Studies in the Digital Age: DisConnects? Leiden: Brill, pp. 111–27.
Thomas, D., Fowler, S., and Johnson, V. (2017). The Silence of the Archive. London: Facet Publishing.
Thylstrup, N. B. (2018). The Politics of Mass Digitization. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Trace, C. B. (2020a). Maintaining records in context: A historical exploration of the theory and practice of archival classification and arrangement. The American Archivist, 83(1): 91–127.
Trace, C. B. (2020b). Maintaining records in context? Disrupting the theory and practice of archival classification and arrangement. The American Archivist, 83(2): 322–72.
Traub, M. C., Van Ossenbruggen, J., and Hardman, L. (2015). Impact analysis of OCR quality on research tasks in digital archives. In Kapidakis, S., Mazurek, C., and Werla, M. (eds), Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 252–63.
Turner, H. (2017). Organizing knowledge in museums: A review of concepts and concerns. Knowledge Organization, 44(7): 472–84.
Valtysson, B. (2012). EUROPEANA: The digital construction of Europe’s collective memory. Information, Communication & Society, 15(2): 151–70.
Vaypan, G., and Nuzov, I. (2021). Russia: ‘Crimes Against History’. Paris: FIDH.
Venkata, S. K., et al. (2021). Alexa, is this a historical record? Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 15(1): 1–20.
Verbruggen, C., Delafontaine, R., Danniau, F., and Chambers, S. (2017). Bedenkingen bij the history manifesto: van Coöperatie naar collaboratie. Belgisch Tijdschrift Voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis, 47(2–3): 202–12.
Verhaar, P. A. F. (2016). Affordances and Limitations of Algorithmic Criticism. Ph.D. thesis, Leiden University.
Vukli, V. and Gilliland, A. J. (2021). Archival activism: Emerging forms, local applications. In Filej, B. (ed.), Archives in the Service of People—People in the Service of Archives. Maribor: Alma Mater Europea, pp. 14–25.
Wevers, M. and Smits, T. (2020). The visual digital turn: Using neural networks to study historical images. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, 35(1): 194–207.
van der Werf, T. and van der Werf, B. (2022). Will archivists use AI to enhance or to dumb down our societal memory? AI & Society, 37: 985–8.
Whaanga, H. and Mato, P. (2021). The Indigenous digital footprint. In Hokowhitu, B., Moreton-Robinson, A., Tuhiwai-Smith, L., Andersen, C., and Larkin, S. (eds), Routledge Handbook of Critical Indigenous Studies. London: Routledge.
Whaley, J. H. (1994). Digitizing history. The American Archivist, 57(4): 660–72.
Whitehead, C., Eckersley, S., Daugbjerg, M., and Bozoglu, G. (eds) (2020). Dimensions of Heritage and Memory: Multiple Europes and the Politics of Crisis. London: Routledge.
Winters, J. (2019). Digital history. In Tamm, M. and Burke, P. (eds), Debating New Approaches to History. London: Bloomsbury, pp. 277–301.
Wodzinski, M. (2022). Eastern European Jewish studies: The past thirty years. Jewish Quarterly Review, 112(2): 1–23.
Wurthmann, N. and Schmidt, C. (2020). Digitale Quellenkunde: Zukunftsaufgaben der Historischen Grundwissenschaften. Studies in Contemporary History, 17(1): 169–78.
Yale, E. (2015). The history of archives: The state of the discipline. Book History, 18(1): 332–59.
Youn, E. (2016). Investigating socio-cultural aspects of the implementation of an international archival descriptive standard in Korea. In Gilliland, A. J., McKemmish, S., and Lau, A. J. (eds), Research in the Archival Multiverse. Clayton: Monash University Publishing, pp. 789–810.
Zaagsma, G. (2013a). On digital history. BMGN—Low Countries Historical Review, 128(4): 3–29.
Zaagsma, G. (2013b). Using digital sources in historical research. Jewish History on the Internet. In Clavert, F. and Noiret, S. (eds), Contemporary History in the Digital Age. Oxford: Peter Lang Publishing Group, pp. 201–13.
Zaagsma, G. (2017). East-Central European Jewish Heritage Online. Session Presenting “Difficult” History—Jewish heritage in East-Central Europe. 4th Annual Conference of the International Federation for Public History. Ravenna, Italy, 5–9 June 2017.
Zhang, J. (2012). Original order in digital archives. Archivaria, 74: 167–93.
Zhang, J. (2018). Digital archival representation: Approaches and challenges. In: Angel, C. M. and Fuchs, C. (eds), Organization, Representation and Description through the Digital Age Information in Libraries, Archives and Museums. Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 89–102.
Zundert, J. J. van, and Haentjens Dekker, R. (2017). Code, scholarship, and criticism: When is code scholarship and when is it not? Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, 32(Suppl. 1): i121–33.
