The hallmarks of Parkinson's disease.

Since the discovery of dopamine as a neurotransmitter in the 1950s, Parkinson's disease (PD) research has generated a rich and complex body of knowledge, revealing PD to be an age-related multifactorial disease, influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. The tremendous complexity of the disease is increased by a non-linear progression of the pathogenesis between molecular, cellular, and organic systems. In this mini-review, we explore the complexity of PD and propose a systems-based approach, organizing the available information around cellular disease hallmarks. We encourage our peers to adopt this cell-based view with the aim of improving communication in interdisciplinary research endeavors targeting the molecular events, modulatory cell-to-cell signaling pathways, and emerging clinical phenotypes related to PD. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.