Prevalence of dementia in Latin America and Caribbean countries: Systematic review and meta-analyses exploring age, sex, rurality, and education as possible determinants
Ribeiro, Fabiana; Teixeira Santos, Ana Carolina; Caramelli, Pauloet al.
[en] Background
Studies have shown that the prevalence of dementia in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) may be higher than in high-income countries. Thus, we sought to systematically analyse the prevalence of dementia and explore possible drivers that lead to this disparity in LAC countries.
Method
We searched Pubmed, Web of Knowledge, Scopus, Lilacs, and SciELO for studies on dementia in LAC countries published in English, Spanish, and Portuguese. Random-effects model was applied.
Results
Thirty-one studies from 17 LAC countries were included. Pooled prevalence of all-cause dementia was 10.66%. Further analyses with studies providing raw prevalence by sex, area, and educational level showed a higher prevalence for women (8.97%) than for men (7.26%). Also, dementia prevalence was higher for rural than urban residents (7.71% vs 8.68%, respectively). Participants without formal education presented more than double the prevalence of dementia (21.37%) compared to those with at least one year of formal education (9.88%). Studies with more recent data collection showed higher dementia prevalence.
Conclusion
Our findings suggest a high global dementia prevalence in LAC countries and an unequal burden of dementia for women, lower-educated, and rural residents. Secular increases in dementia prevalence call for greater public health efforts for preventative actions.
Disciplines :
Social & behavioral sciences, psychology: Multidisciplinary, general & others
Author, co-author :
Ribeiro, Fabiana ; University of Luxembourg > Faculty of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences (FHSE) > Department of Social Sciences (DSOC)
Teixeira Santos, Ana Carolina ; University of Luxembourg > Faculty of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences (FHSE) > Department of Social Sciences (DSOC)
Caramelli, Paulo
Leist, Anja ; University of Luxembourg > Faculty of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences (FHSE) > Department of Social Sciences (DSOC)
External co-authors :
yes
Language :
English
Title :
Prevalence of dementia in Latin America and Caribbean countries: Systematic review and meta-analyses exploring age, sex, rurality, and education as possible determinants
Publication date :
November 2022
Journal title :
Ageing Research Reviews
ISSN :
1568-1637
Publisher :
Elsevier, Netherlands
Peer reviewed :
Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi
European Projects :
H2020 - 803239 - CRISP - Cognitive Aging: From Educational Opportunities to Individual Risk Profiles
Aarsland, D., Sardahaee, F.S., Anderssen, S., Ballard, C., Alzheimer's Society Systematic Review group, Is physical activity a potential preventive factor for vascular dementia? A systematic review. Aging Ment. Health 14:4 (2010), 386–395, 10.1080/13607860903586136.
Agência Nacional de Saúde Suplementar. (2021). ANS TABNET. Retrieved 26 September 2021, from 〈http://www.ans.gov.br/anstabnet/〉.
Albala, C., Quiroga, P., Klaassen, G., Rioseco, P., Pérez, H., & Calvo, C. (1997). Prevalence of dementia and cognitive impairment in Chile.(Abstr). World Congress of Gerontology.
Albanese, E., Dangour, A.D., Uauy, R., Acosta, D., Guerra, M., Guerra, S.S., Huang, Y., Jacob, K.S., de Rodriguez, J.L., Noriega, L.H., Salas, A., Sosa, A.L., Sousa, R.M., Williams, J., Ferri, C.P., Prince, M.J., Dietary fish and meat intake and dementia in Latin America, China, and India: a 10/66 Dementia Research Group population-based study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90:2 (2009), 392–400, 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27580.
Alvares Pereira, G., Silva Nunes, M.V., Alzola, P., Contador, I., Cognitive reserve and brain maintenance in aging and dementia: an integrative review. Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult, 2021, 10.1080/23279095.2021.1872079.
Bacigalupo, I., Mayer, F., Lacorte, E., Di Pucchio, A., Marzolini, F., Canevelli, M., Di Fiandra, T., Vanacore, N., A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of dementia in europe: estimates from the highest-quality studies adopting the DSM IV diagnostic criteria. J. Alzheimer's Dis. JAD 66:4 (2018), 1471–1481, 10.3233/JAD-180416.
Bartoloni, L., Blatt, G., Insua, I., Furman, M., González, M.A., Hermann, B., Kesselman, M., Massautis, A., Reinado, A., Senas, P., Yavitz, C., Lejarraga, H., Nunes, F., Arizaga, R.L., Allegri, R.F., Bartoloni, L., Blatt, G., Insua, I., Furman, M., Allegri, R.F., A population-based study of cognitive impairment in socially vulnerable adults in Argentina. The Matanza Riachuelo Study. Preliminary Results. Dement. Neuropsychol. 8:4 (2014), 339–344, 10.1590/S1980-57642014DN84000006.
Bottino, C.M.C., Azevedo, D., Tatsch, M., Hototian, S.R., Moscoso, M.A., Folquitto, J., Scalco, A.Z., Bazzarella, M.C., Lopes, M.A., Litvoc, J., Estimate of dementia prevalence in a community sample from São Paulo, Brazil. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 26:4 (2008), 291–299, 10.1159/000161053.
Brodaty, H., Seeher, K., Gibson, L., Dementia time to death: a systematic literature review on survival time and years of life lost in people with dementia. Int. Psychogeriatr. 24:7 (2012), 1034–1045, 10.1017/S1041610211002924.
Brucki, S.M.D., Nitrini, R., Cognitive impairment in individuals with low educational level and homogeneous sociocultural background. Dement. Neuropsychol., 8(4), 2014 (LILACS) 〈http://www.demneuropsy.com.br/detalhe_artigo.asp?id=489〉.
Cao, Q., Tan, C.-C., Xu, W., Hu, H., Cao, X.-P., Dong, Q., Tan, L., Yu, J.-T., The prevalence of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Alzheimers Dis. 73:3 (2020), 1157–1166, 10.3233/JAD-191092.
Caramelli, P., Barbosa, M.T., Sakurai, E., Dos Santos, E.L., Beato, R.G., Machado, J.C.B., Guimarães, H.C., Teixeira, A.L., Pietà Study Group, The Pietà study: Epidemiological investigation on successful brain aging in Caeté (MG), Brazil. Methods and baseline cohort characteristics. Arq. De. Neuro-Psiquiatr. 69:4 (2011), 579–584, 10.1590/s0004-282x2011000500002.
Carter, C.L., Resnick, E.M., Mallampalli, M., Kalbarczyk, A., Sex and gender differences in alzheimer's disease: recommendations for future research. J. Women's Health 21:10 (2012), 1018–1023, 10.1089/jwh.2012.3789.
Chan, J., Harky, A., The importance of risk of bias assessment in meta-analyses: does controlling heterogeneity suffice. Eur. J. Cardio-Thorac. Surg.: Off. J. Eur. Assoc. Cardio-Thorac. Surg., 58(5), 2020, 1102, 10.1093/ejcts/ezaa174.
Correa Ribeiro, P.C., de Souza Lopes, C., Lourenço, R.A., Prevalence of dementia in elderly clients of a private health care plan: a study of the FIBRA-RJ, Brazil. (PubMed.) Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 35:1–2 (2013), 77–86, 10.1159/000345984.
Correia, C.C., Lima, F., Junqueira, F., Campos, M.S., Bastos, O., Petribú, K., Laks, J., Galvin, J.E., AD8-Brazil: cross-cultural validation of the ascertaining dementia interview in Portuguese. J. Alzheimer's Dis.: JAD 27:1 (2011), 177–185, 10.3233/JAD-2011-100915.
Custodio, N., Wheelock, A., Thumala, D., Slachevsky, A., Dementia in Latin America: epidemiological Evidence and Implications for Public Policy. Front. Aging Neurosci., 2017, 9, 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00221.
Custodio, N., García, A., Montesinos, R., Escobar, J., Bendezú, L., Prevalencia de demencia en una población urbana de Lima-Perú: Estudio puerta a puerta. Fac. Med. 69:4 (2008), 233–238.
Davis, G., Baboolal, N., Rae, A.M., Stewart, R., Dementia prevalence in a population at high vascular risk: the trinidad national survey of ageing and cognition. BMJ Open, 8(2), 2018, e018288, 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-018288.
Deeks, J.J., Higgins, J.P.T., Altman, D.G., Chapter 10: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. Higgins, J.P.T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M.J., Welch, V.A., (eds.) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.3 (updated February 2022), 2022, Cochrane, 2022 (Available from) 〈www.training.cochrane.org/handbook〉.
Eldemire-Shearer, D., Johnson, P., Gibson, R., James, K., Willie-Tyndale, D., Dementia among older persons in Jamaica: Prevalence and policy implications. West Indian Med. J. Open 67:1 (2018), 1–8, 10.7727/wimj.2017.133.
Fang, E.F., Xie, C., Schenkel, J.A., Wu, C., Long, Q., Cui, H., Woo, J., A research agenda for ageing in China in the 21st century (2nd edition): Focusing on basic and translational research, long-term care, policy and social networks. Ageing Res. Rev., 2020, 101174, 10.1016/j.arr.2020.101174.
FAO, IFAD, PAHO, WFP, UNICEF, Latin America and the Caribbean – Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2021: Statistics and Trends. 2021, FAO, Santiago, 10.4060/cb7497en.
Feigin, V.L., Roth, G.A., Naghavi, M., Parmar, P., Krishnamurthi, R., Chugh, S., Mensah, G.A., Norrving, B., Shiue, I., Ng, M., Estep, K., Cercy, K., Murray, C.J.L., Forouzanfar, M.H., Global burden of stroke and risk factors in 188 countries, during 1990–2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet Neurology, 15, 2016, 913–924, 10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30073-4.
Fleiss, J.L., Statistical Methods For Rates and Proportions. 1981, Wiley, New York, NY.
Folstein, M., Anthony, J.C., Parhad, I., Duffy, B., Gruenberg, E.M., The meaning of cognitive impairment in the elderly. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 33:4 (1985), 228–235, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1985.tb07109.x.
Freeman, M.F., Tukey, J.W., Transformations related to the angular and the square root. Ann. Math. Stat. 21:4 (1950), 607–611, 10.1214/aoms/1177729756.
Ganguli, M., Albanese, E., Seshadri, S., Bennett, D.A., Lyketsos, C., Kukull, W.A., Skoog, I., Hendrie, H.C., Population neuroscience: dementia epidemiology serving precision medicine and population health. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 32:1 (2018), 1–9, 10.1097/WAD.0000000000000237.
Gatz, M., Mack, W.J., Chui, H.C., Law, E.M., Barisano, G., Sutherland, M.L., Sutherland, J.D., Eid Rodriguez, D., Quispe Gutierrez, R., Copajira Adrian, J., Bani Cuata, J., Borenstein, A.R., Walters, E.E., Irimia, A., Rowan, C.J., Wann, L.S., Allam, A.H., Thompson, R.C., Miyamoto, M.I., Michalik, D.E., Kaplan, H., Prevalence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in indigenous Bolivian forager-horticulturalists. Alzheimer'S. Dement. J. Alzheimer'S. Assoc., 2022 10.1002/alz.12626. Advance online publication. 〈https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12626〉.
Gauthier, S., Reisberg, B., Zaudig, M., Petersen, R.C., Ritchie, K., Broich, K., Belleville, S., Brodaty, H., Bennett, D., Chertkow, H., Cummings, J.L., de Leon, M., Feldman, H., Ganguli, M., Hampel, H., Scheltens, P., Tierney, M.C., Whitehouse, P., Winblad, B., International Psychogeriatric Association Expert Conference on mild cognitive impairment, Mild cognitive impairment. Lancet (Lond., Engl. ) 367:9518 (2006), 1262–1270, 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68542-5.
GBD 2016 Dementia Collaborators, Global, regional, and national burden of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, 1990-2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 18:1 (2019), 88–106, 10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30403-4.
Gomes, C., Intergenerational Exchanges in Mexico: Types and Intensity of Support. Curr. Sociol. 55:4 (2007), 545–560, 10.1177/0011392107077638.
Gooding, M.P., Amaya, E., Parra, M., & Ríos, A.M. (2006). Prevalencia de las demencias en el municipio de Neiva 2003–2005. 22(3), 6.
Herrera, E., Caramelli, P., Silveira, A.S.B., Nitrini, R., Epidemiologic survey of dementia in a community-dwelling Brazilian population. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 16:2 (2002), 103–108, 10.1097/00002093-200204000-00007.
Ibáñez, A., Pina-Escudero, S.D., Possin, K.L., Quiroz, Y.T., Peres, F.A., Slachevsky, A., Sosa, A.L., Brucki, S.M.D., Miller, B.L., Dementia caregiving across Latin America and the Caribbean and brain health diplomacy. Lancet Healthy Longev. 2:4 (2021), e222–e231, 10.1016/S2666-7568(21)00031-3.
Jin, X., He, W., Zhang, Y., Gong, E., Niu, Z., Ji, J., Li, Y., Zeng, Y., Yan, L.L., Association of APOE ε4 genotype and lifestyle with cognitive function among Chinese adults aged 80 years and older: a cross-sectional study. PLoS Med., 18(6), 2021, e1003597, 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003597.
Ketzoian, C., Romero, S., Dieguez, E., Cairolo, G., Rega, Y., Caseres, R., Chouza, C., Prevalence of demential sindromes in a population of Uruguay. Study of “Villa del Cerro”. J. Neurol. Sci. 1997 (1997), 150–155, 10.1016/S0022-510X(97)85606-7.
Ketzoian, C., Rega, I., Caseres, R., Dieguez, E., Coirolo, G., Scaramelli, A., Salamano, R., Caamaño, J.L., Romero, S., Carrasco, L., Pizzarossa, C., Chouza, C., Estudio de la prevalencia de las principales enfermedades neurológicas en una población del Uruguay. La Prensa Medica Uruguaya 19:1 (1997), 9–26.
Koller, D., Bynum, J.P.W., Dementia in the USA: State variation in prevalence. J. Public Health 37:4 (2015), 597–604, 10.1093/pubmed/fdu080.
Langa, K.M., Larson, E.B., Crimmins, E.M., Faul, J.D., Levine, D.A., Kabeto, M.U., Weir, D.R., A Comparison of the Prevalence of Dementia in the United States in 2000 and 2012. JAMA Intern. Med. 177:1 (2017), 51–58, 10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.6807.
Launer, L.J., Statistics on the burden of dementia: need for stronger data. Lancet Neurol. 18:1 (2019), 25–27, 10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30456-3.
Lin, L., Xu, C., Arcsine-based transformations for meta-analysis of proportions: Pros, cons, and alternatives. Health Sci. Rep., 3(3), 2020, e178, 10.1002/hsr2.178.
Livingston, G., Huntley, J., Sommerlad, A., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Brayne, C., Burns, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J., Cooper, C., Costafreda, S.G., Dias, A., Fox, N., Gitlin, L.N., Howard, R., Kales, H.C., Kivimäki, M., Larson, E.B., Ogunniyi, A., Orgeta, V., Mukadam, N., Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. Lancet 396:10248 (2020), 413–446, 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6.
Llibre, J., de, J., Fernández, Y., Marcheco, B., Contreras, N., López, A.M., Otero, M., Gil, I., Guerra, M., Bayarre, H., García, M., Prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in a Havana municipality: a community-based study among elderly residents. MEDICC Rev. 11:2 (2009), 29–35.
Llibre Rodriguez, J.J., Ferri, C.P., Acosta, D., Guerra, M., Huang, Y., Jacob, K.S., Krishnamoorthy, E.S., Salas, A., Sosa, A.L., Acosta, I., Dewey, M.E., Gaona, C., Jotheeswaran, A.T., Li, S., Rodriguez, D., Rodriguez, G., Kumar, P.S., Valhuerdi, A., Prince, M., 10/66 Dementia Research Group, Prevalence of dementia in Latin America, India, and China: a population-based cross-sectional survey. Lancet 372:9637 (2008), 464–474, 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61002-8.
Llibre Rodríguez, J.J., Guerra Hernández, M.A., Pérez Cruz, H., Bayarre Vea, H., Fernández Ramírez, S., González Rodríguez, M., Samper Noa, J.A., Síndrome demencial y factores de riesgo en adultos mayores de 60 años residentes en La Habana. Rev. De. Neurol., 29(10), 1999, 908, 10.33588/rn.2910.99312.
Llibre-Guerra, J.J., Li, Y., Allegri, R.F., Mendez, P.C., Surace, E.I., Llibre-Rodriguez, J.J., Sosa, A.L., Aláez-Verson, C., Longoria, E.M., Tellez, A., Carrillo-Sánchez, K., Flores-Lagunes, L.L., Sánchez, V., Takada, L.T., Nitrini, R., Ferreira-Frota, N.A., Benevides-Lima, J., Lopera, F., Ramírez, L., Jiménez-Velázquez, I., Bateman, R.J., Dominantly inherited Alzheimer's disease in Latin America: Genetic heterogeneity and clinical phenotypes. Alzheimer'S. Dement.: J. Alzheimer's. Assoc. 17:4 (2021), 653–664, 10.1002/alz.12227.
Lopes, M.A., Ferrioli, E., Nakano, E.Y., Litvoc, J., Bottino, C.M.C., High prevalence of dementia in a community-based survey of older people from Brazil: association with intellectual activity rather than education. J. Alzheimer's Dis. JAD 32:2 (2012), 307–316, 10.3233/JAD-2012-120847.
Maestre, G.E., Mena, L.J., Melgarejo, J.D., Aguirre-Acevedo, D.C., Pino-Ramirez, G., Urribarri, M., Chacon, I.J., Chavez, C., Falque-Madrid, L., Gaona, C.A., Terwilliger, J.D., Lee, J.H., Scarmeas, N., Incidence of dementia in elderly Latin Americans: results of the Maracaibo Aging Study. Alzheimers Dement. 14:2 (2018), 140–147, 10.1016/j.jalz.2017.06.2636.
Magalhães, M.O., de, C., Peixoto, J.M., de, S., Frank, M.H., Gomes, I., Rodrigues, B.M., Menezes, C., Cardoso, E., Carvalho, F., Aras, R., Melo, A., Risk factors for dementia in a rural area of Northeastern Brazil. Arq. De. Neuro Psiquiatr. 66:2A (2008), 157–162, 10.1590/S0004-282X2008000200003.
Manrique-Espinoza, B., Salinas-Rodríguez, A., Margarita Moreno-Tamayo, K., Condiciones de salud y estado funcional de los adultos mayores en México. Salud Pública De. México 55:Supl.2 (2013), S323–S331, 10.21149/spm.v55s2.5131.
Martínez Querol, C., Pérez Martínez, V.T., Carballo Pérez, M., Varona Herrera, G., Estudio clínico epidemiológico del síndrome demencial. Rev. Cuba. De. Med. Gen. Integral, 21(3–4), 2005 0–0.
Matthews, F.E., Arthur, A., Barnes, L.E., Bond, J., Jagger, C., Robinson, L., Brayne, C., A two-decade comparison of prevalence of dementia in individuals aged 65 years and older from three geographical areas of England: Results of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study I and II. Lancet 382:9902 (2013), 1405–1412, 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61570-6.
McDougall, G.J. Jr, Assessing and addressing cognitive impairment in the elderly: a look at the research into cognitive impairment. Am. Nurse Today 12:11 (2017), 14–19.
Mejia-Arango, S., Gutierrez, L.M., Prevalence and incidence rates of dementia and cognitive impairment no dementia in the Mexican population: data from the Mexican Health and Aging Study. J. Aging Health 23:7 (2011), 1050–1074, 10.1177/0898264311421199.
Mejia-Arango, S., Avila, J., Downer, B., Garcia, M.A., Michaels-Obregon, A., Saenz, J.L., Samper-Ternent, R., Wong, R., Effect of demographic and health dynamics on cognitive status in Mexico between 2001 and 2015: evidence from the mexican health and aging study. Geriatrics, 6(3), 2021, 63, 10.3390/geriatrics6030063.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G., PRISMA Group, Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Int. J. Surg. 8:5 (2010), 336–341, 10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.02.007.
Molero, A.E., Pino-Ramirez, G., Maestre, G.E., High prevalence of dementia in a Caribbean population. Neuroepidemiology 29:1–2 (2007), 107–112, 10.1159/000109824.
Mondini, S., Madella, I., Zangrossi, A., Bigolin, A., Tomasi, C., Michieletto, M., Villani, D., Di Giovanni, G., Mapelli, D., Cognitive reserve in Dementia: implications for cognitive training. Front. Aging Neurosci., 2016, 8, 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00084.
Mukadam, N., Sommerlad, A., Huntley, J., Livingston, G., Population attributable fractions for risk factors for dementia in low-income and middle-income countries: an analysis using cross-sectional survey data. Lancet Glob. Health 7:5 (2019), e596–e603, 10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30074-9.
Munn, Z., Moola, S., Lisy, K., Riitano, D., Tufanaru, C., Methodological guidance for systematic reviews of observational epidemiological studies reporting prevalence and cumulative incidence data. Int. J. Evid. -Based Healthc. 13:3 (2015), 147–153, 10.1097/XEB.0000000000000054.
Neita, S.M., Abel, W.D., Eldemire-Shearer, D., James, K., Gibson, R.C., The prevalence and associated demographic factors of dementia from a cross-sectional community survey in Kingston, Jamaica. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 29:1 (2014), 103–105, 10.1002/gps.3982.
Nitrini, R., Barbosa, M.T., Brucki, S.M.D., Yassuda, M.S., Caramelli, P., Current trends and challenges on dementia management and research in Latin America. J. Glob. Health, 10(1), 2020, 010362, 10.7189/jogh.10.010362.
Nitrini, R., Bottino, C.M.C., Albala, C., Capuñay, N.S.C., Ketzoian, C., Llibre Rodriguez, J.J., Maestre, G.E., Ramos-Cerqueira, A.T.A., Caramelli, P., Prevalence of dementia in Latin America: a collaborative study of population-based cohorts. Int. Psychogeriatr. 21:4 (2009), 622–630, 10.1017/S1041610209009430.
OECD, The World Bank, Health at a Glance: Latin America and the Caribbean 2020. 2020, OECD Publishing, Paris, 10.1787/6089164f-en.
Parra, M.A., Baez, S., Allegri, R., Nitrini, R., Lopera, F., Slachevsky, A., Custodio, N., Lira, D., Piguet, O., Kumfor, F., Huepe, D., Cogram, P., Bak, T., Manes, F., Ibanez, A., Dementia in Latin America: Assessing the present and envisioning the future. (PubMed) Neurology 90:5 (2018), 222–231, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000004897.
Parra, M.A., Baez, S., Sedeño, L., Gonzalez Campo, C., Santamaría-García, H., Aprahamian, I., Bertolucci, P.H., Bustin, J., Camargos Bicalho, M.A., Cano-Gutierrez, C., Caramelli, P., Chaves, M.L.F., Cogram, P., Beber, B.C., Court, F.A., de Souza, L.C., Custodio, N., Damian, A., de la Cruz, M., Ibanez, A., Dementia in Latin America: paving the way toward a regional action plan. Alzheimer's Dement. J. Alzheimer's Assoc. 17:2 (2021), 295–313, 10.1002/alz.12202.
Pedraza, O.L., Montes, A.M.S., Sierra, F.A., Montalvo, M.C., Muñoz, Y., Díaz, J.M., Lozano, A., Piñeros, C., Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia in a sample of adults in the city of Bogotá. Dement. Neuropsychol. 11:3 (2017), 262–269.
Pelaez, M., Martinez, I., Equity and systems of intergenerational transfers in Latin America and the Caribbean. Rev. Panam. De. Salud Pública 11 (2002), 439–443, 10.1590/S1020-49892002000500021.
Prince, M., Bryce, R., Albanese, E., Wimo, A., Ribeiro, W., Ferri, C.P., The global prevalence of dementia: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Alzheimers Dement. 9:1 (2013), 63–75, 10.1016/j.jalz.2012.11.007.
Prince, M., Acosta, D., Ferri, C.P., Guerra, M., Huang, Y., Rodriguez, J.J.L., Salas, A., Sosa, A.L., Williams, J.D., Dewey, M.E., Acosta, I., Jotheeswaran, A.T., Liu, Z., Dementia incidence and mortality in middle-income countries, and associations with indicators of cognitive reserve: a 10/66 Dementia Research Group population-based cohort study. Lancet 380:9836 (2012), 50–58, 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60399-7.
Prince, M.J., Wu, F., Guo, Y., Gutierrez Robledo, L.M., O'Donnell, M., Sullivan, R., Yusuf, S., The burden of disease in older people and implications for health policy and practice. Lancet 385:9967 (2015), 549–562, 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61347-7.
Ramos-Cerqueira, A.T.A., Torres, A.R., Crepaldi, A.L., Oliveira, N.I.L., Scazufca, M., Menezes, P.R., Prince, M., Identification of dementia cases in the community: a Brazilian experience. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 53:10 (2005), 1738–1742, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53553.x.
Ribeiro, F.S., de Oliveira Duarte, Y.A., Santos, J.L.F., Leist, L.K., Changes in prevalence of cognitive impairment and associated risk factors 2000–2015 in São Paulo, Brazil. BMC Geriatr., 21, 2021, 609, 10.1186/s12877-021-02542-x.
Roberts, R.O., Knopman, D.S., Mielke, M.M., Cha, R.H., Pankratz, V.S., Christianson, T.J., Geda, Y.E., Boeve, B.F., Ivnik, R.J., Tangalos, E.G., Rocca, W.A., Petersen, R.C., Higher risk of progression to dementia in mild cognitive impairment cases who revert to normal. Neurology 82:4 (2014), 317–325 〈https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000055〉.
Sanchez-Arenas, R., Vargas-Alarcon, G., Sanchez-Garcia, S., Garcia-Peña, C., Gutierrez-Gutierrez, L., Grijalva, I., Garcia-Dominguez, A., Juárez-Cedillo, T., Value of EQ-5D in Mexican city older population with and without dementia (SADEM study). Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 29:5 (2013), 478–488, 10.1002/gps.4030.
Satizabal, C.L., Beiser, A.S., Chouraki, V., Chêne, G., Dufouil, C., Seshadri, S., Incidence of dementia over three decades in the framingham heart study. New Engl. J. Med. 374:6 (2016), 523–532, 10.1056/NEJMoa1504327.
Scazufca, M., Menezes, P.R., Vallada, H.P., Crepaldi, A.L., Pastor-Valero, M., Coutinho, L.M.S., Di Rienzo, V.D., Almeida, O.P., High prevalence of dementia among older adults from poor socioeconomic backgrounds in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Int. Psychogeriatr. 20:2 (2008), 394–405, 10.1017/S1041610207005625.
Shadish, W.R., Haddock, C.K., Combining estimates of effect size. Cooper, H., Hedges, L.V., (eds.) The Handbook of Research Synthesis, 1994, NY Russell Sage, New York, 261–280.
Snyder, H.M., Asthana, S., Bain, L., Brinton, R., Craft, S., Dubal, D.B., Espeland, M.A., Gatz, M., Mielke, M.M., Raber, J., Rapp, P.R., Yaffe, K., Carrillo, M.C., Sex biology contributions to vulnerability to Alzheimer's disease: a think tank convened by the Women's Alzheimer's Research Initiative. Alzheimer's Dement.: J. Alzheimer's Assoc. 12:11 (2016), 1186–1196, 10.1016/j.jalz.2016.08.004.
Soto-Añari, M., Camargo, L., Ramos-Henderson, M., Rivera-Fernández, C., Denegri-Solís, L., Calle, U., Mori, N., Ocampo-Barbá, N., López, F., Porto, M., Caldichoury-Obando, N., Saldías, C., Gargiulo, P., Castellanos, C., Shelach-Bellido, S., López, N., Prevalence of dementia and associated factors among older adults in Latin America during the COVID-19 pandemic. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. Extra 11:3 (2021), 213–221, 10.1159/000518922.
StataCorp. 2021. Stata Statistical Software: Release 17. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC.
UNESCO, Literacy rates rise from one generation to next, but challenges remain in region. 2017, UNESCO Bangkok, 〈https://bangkok.unesco.org/content/literacy-rates-rise-one-generation-next-challenges-remain-region〉.
United Nations. (2019). World Population Prospects—Population Division—United Nations. 〈https://population.un.org/wpp/〉.
United Nations Data Retrieval System (n.d.). Retrieved 12 August 2021, from 〈http://data.un.org/default.aspx〉.
Vargas-Alarcón, G., Juárez-Cedillo, E., Martínez-Rodríguez, N., Fragoso, J.M., García-Hernández, N., Juárez-Cedillo, T., Association of interleukin-10 polymorphisms with risk factors of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias (SADEM study). Immunol. Lett. 177 (2016), 47–52, 10.1016/j.imlet.2016.07.011.
Villarreal, A.E., Pérez-Lao, A.R., Oviedo, D.C., Grajales, S., Carreira, M.B., Britton, G.B., The panama aging research initiative longitudinal study. MEDICC Rev. 21:2–3 (2019), 54–58.
Villarreal, A.E., Grajales, S., O'Bryant, S.E., Edwards, M., López, L., Montalván, A., Britton, G.B., Panama Aging Research Initiative (PARI), Characterization of Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment in older adults in panama. J. Alzheimer's Dis. JAD 54:3 (2016), 897–901, 10.3233/JAD-160402.
Weden, M.M., Shih, R.A., Kabeto, M.U., Langa, K.M., Secular trends in dementia and cognitive impairment of U.S. rural and urban older adults. Am. J. Prev. Med. 54:2 (2018), 164–172, 10.1016/j.amepre.2017.10.021.
World Health Organization. (2020). Dementia. 〈https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia〉.
Xiang, Y., Vilmenay, K., Poon, A.N., Ayanian, S., Aitken, C.F., Chan, K.Y., Systematic review estimating the burden of dementia in the Latin America and caribbean region: a bayesian approach. Front. Neurol., 12, 2021, 628520, 10.3389/fneur.2021.628520.
Yu-Tzu, Wu, Gemma-Claire Ali, Maëlenn Guerchet, Matthew Prina, A., Kit Yee Chan, Martin Prince, Carol Brayne, Prevalence of dementia in mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. Volume 47:Issue 3 (2018), 709–719, 10.1093/ije/dyy007.
Zurique Sánchez, C., Cadena Sanabria, M.O., Zurique Sánchez, M., Camacho López, P.A., Sánchez Sanabria, M., Hernández Hernández, S., Velásquez Vanegas, K., Ustate Valera, A., Prevalencia de demencia en adultos mayores de América Latina: revisión sistemática. Rev. Esp. De. Geriatría Y. Gerontol. 54:6 (2019), 346–355, 10.1016/j.regg.2018.12.007.
