Working memory and learning

Presentation (2010, June)

Multilingualism and language learning: A study of Portuguese immigrant children growing up in a multilingual society

Poster (2010, January)

Working memory is suggested to play a crucial role in children’s native and foreign language acquisition. The major aim of the present study was to explore how growing up with an immigrant background ... [more ▼]

Working memory is suggested to play a crucial role in children’s native and foreign language acquisition. The major aim of the present study was to explore how growing up with an immigrant background might affect children’s linguistic and working memory abilities. Twenty 7-year old Portuguese children from Luxembourg, who speak Portuguese at home and acquire Luxembourgish in a natural setting and German through scholastic instruction, participated in the study. Children completed several measures of verbal short-term memory (digit recall and nonword repetition) and complex working memory span tasks (counting recall and backwards digit recall) in Luxembourgish and in Portuguese. Participants were further assessed on vocabulary measures in Portuguese, Luxembourgish, and German, and on syntactic comprehension in Luxembourgish and German. The Portuguese children were compared to three groups of monolingual speakers: 20 Luxembourgish children living in Luxembourg and 40 Portuguese speaking children growing up in Brazil. The Brazilian children were recruited from families of high and low socio-economical status (SES) with 20 children in each group. Participants in the Luxembourgish sample were of high SES and the Portuguese children were of lower SES. Groups were matched on age, nonverbal ability, and gender. The results showed that in the Portuguese immigrant children, language competences in Portuguese, Luxembourgish, and German were at an equivalent level that fell below the linguistic competence of native speakers from Brazil and from Luxembourg. For the working memory measures the data showed first that the Portuguese children performed equally well in the Luxembourgish and Portuguese versions of the digit recall, backwards digit recall, and counting recall tasks, and second that the Portuguese children’s performance in these three measures did not differ from their monolingual peers from Luxembourg and Brazil. For nonword repetition the results showed that the Portuguese children performed equally well to their Brazilian counterparts in the repetition of the Portuguese sounding nonwords whereas their performance in the repetition of the Luxembourgish nonwords was below that of the native Luxembourgish speakers. This latter finding is consistent with the position that verbal short-term memory performance is better for familiar rather than unfamiliar lexical material. Despite normal general cognitive functions, as documented by the working memory measures, immigrant children showed significantly reduced language performance that can not be easily explained by differences in wealth or other socio economic factors. Instead, the findings appear to be a direct consequence of growing up as an immigrant in a multilingual society raising the question of the necessity of specific language support for immigrant children growing up in a multilingual society. The results also have important practical utility: Whereas language assessments based on measurements of vocabulary may overestimate language learning difficulties in children with an immigrant background working memory measures might not. As working memory measures are highly associated with children’s language learning and more general academic progress, these tests can provide methods of identifying children with potential learning difficulties that are unlikely to be distorted by differences in wealth or other significant environmental factors that have an impact on language learning opportunities. [less ▲]

Working memory and fluid intelligence

Poster (2009, November)

The present study investigates how working memory and fluid intelligence are related in young children and which aspect of working memory span tasks– short-term storage or controlled attention - might ... [more ▼]

The present study investigates how working memory and fluid intelligence are related in young children and which aspect of working memory span tasks– short-term storage or controlled attention - might drive the relationship. A sample of 119 children were followed from kindergarten to 2nd grade and completed assessments of working memory, short-term memory, and fluid intelligence. The data showed that working memory, verbal short-term memory, and fluid intelligence were highly related but separate constructs in young children. The results further showed that when the common variance between working memory and short-term memory was controlled, the residual working memory factor manifested significant links with fluid intelligence whereas the residual short-term memory factor did not. These findings suggest that in young children the executive demands rather than the storage component of working memory span tasks are the source of their link with fluid intelligence. [less ▲]

WORKING MEMORY AND LEARNING: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF TRILINGUAL CHILDREN

Scientific Conference (2009, August)

The aim of the present study was to investigate the contribution of two working memory systems (the phonological loop and the central executive) to children’s learning in the areas of vocabulary, language ... [more ▼]

The aim of the present study was to investigate the contribution of two working memory systems (the phonological loop and the central executive) to children’s learning in the areas of vocabulary, language comprehension, reading, spelling, mathematical skills, and foreign language acquisition. The term working memory refers to the ability to store and manipulate information in mind for a brief period of time, in the course of ongoing cognitive activities (Baddeley, 2000). A sample of 119 Luxembourgish children, learning German and French as secondary languages were assessed longitudinally over a 3-year time period. In Luxembourg, children learn to speak, read, and write in two languages that are different from their native language Luxembourgish. A battery of working memory, and learning ability tests were administered. Children were tested in kindergarten (5 years of age), in first, and in second grade with a one year interval between each testing wave. Multiple assessments of each construct made it possible to construct latent variables, and apply structural equation modeling techniques to explore the underlying theoretical structure of working memory in young children, and possible links with learning. Results indicate that relations between the working memory measures were best characterized by a model consisting of two related but separable constructs corresponding to the phonological loop and the central executive. Individual differences in phonological loop functioning and the central executive were found to be remarkably stable from kindergarten through second grade. The data further showed that both memory components were differentially associated with learning: Whereas the phonological loop was more specifically linked to early language development and vocabulary in particular, the central executive appeared to make more general contributions to classroom related learning. The findings lend strong support to the position that the phonological loop is one of the main contributors to new word learning in both native and non-native languages by supporting the formation of stable phonological representations of new words in long-term memory. Furthermore the findings fit well with the position that the central executive might play an important role in the monitoring and processing of information during complex and demanding activities present in many classroom situations. In conclusion, the presented evidence of (a) the stability of individual differences in young children’s working memory capacity and, (b) causal relations of working memory with learning reinforces the value of early screening of working memory abilities to identify children who are at risk of poor academic progress over the coming years. [less ▲]

Working memory and learning: Evidence from a population of trilingual children

Poster (2009, April)

The aim of the present study was to investigate the contribution of two working memory systems (the phonological loop and the central executive) to children’s learning in the areas of vocabulary, language ... [more ▼]

The aim of the present study was to investigate the contribution of two working memory systems (the phonological loop and the central executive) to children’s learning in the areas of vocabulary, language comprehension, reading, writing, mathematical skills, and foreign language acquisition. The term working memory refers to the ability to store and manipulate information in mind for a brief period of time, in the course of ongoing cognitive activities (Baddeley, 2000). A sample of 119 Luxembourgish children, learning German and French as secondary languages were assessed longitudinally over a 3-year time period. In Luxembourg, children learn to speak, read, and write in 2 languages that are different from their native language Luxembourgish. A battery of working memory, native and foreign language tests was administered. Mathematical ability was assessed via a teacher assessment questionnaire. Children were tested in Kindergarten (5 years of age), in 1st, and in 2nd grade with a one year interval between each testing wave. Multiple assessments of each construct made it possible to construct latent variables, and apply structural equation modeling techniques to explore the underlying theoretical structure of working memory in young children, and possible links with learning. Results indicate that relations between the working memory measures were best characterized by a model consisting of two related but separable constructs – corresponding to the phonological loop and the central executive. Examination of the correlation estimates between each construct with itself across the three measurement occasions revealed that individual differences in phonological loop and central executive are remarkably stable from Kindergarten through second grade. The data further showed that assessments of the phonological loop in Kindergarten were strongly associated with vocabulary knowledge and comprehension in native and foreign languages in 1st and 2nd grade and manifested a weaker, but significant, relationship with reading, writing, and mathematics up to two years later. Central executive in Kindergarten significantly predicted reading in 1st grade. The findings lend strong support to the position that the phonological loop is one of the main contributors to new word learning in both native and non-native languages by supporting the formation of stable phonological representations of new words in longterm memory. Phonological loop processing also seems to play a significant role in the syntactic comprehension of sentences. The heard material might be kept active in the phonological loop while the child is listening to the sentence and processing it for comprehension. Finally, working memory appears to make significant contributions to reading, writing, and mathematic skills. Literacy and math classroom activities often impose heavy demands on working memory, the capacity of which therefore might have a direct effect on the frequency of task failure or success in these classroom activities. In conclusion, the presented evidence of (a) the stability of individual differences in young children’s working memory capacity and, (b) causal relations of working memory with learning reinforces the value of early screening of working memory abilities to identify children who are at risk of poor academic progress over the coming years. [less ▲]

Working memory and language: A latent variable longitudinal study

Poster (2008, November)

The relationship between working memory, phonological awareness, and developing language skills was explored longitudinally in children growing up in a multilingual society. A sample of 121 children from ... [more ▼]

The relationship between working memory, phonological awareness, and developing language skills was explored longitudinally in children growing up in a multilingual society. A sample of 121 children from Luxembourg were followed from kindergarten to first grade, and completed multiple assessments of working memory, phonological awareness, native and foreign vocabulary knowledge, language comprehension, and reading. Relations between the measures were best characterized by a model consisting of two related but separable constructs—corresponding to verbal short-term memory and the central executive—that were distinct from phonological awareness. Assessments of verbal short-term memory in kindergarten significantly predicted vocabulary knowledge and comprehension in native and foreign languages 1 year later: Central executive and verbal short-term memory measures in kindergarten were significantly associated with reading in first grade, and phonological awareness did not predict any of the language constructs. [less ▲]

Brave new word: Multilingualism and language learning. A study of Portuguese immigrant children growing up in a plurilingual society

Poster (2008, April)

Working memory, the capacity to store and manipulate information over brief periods of time (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) is suggested to play a crucial role in children’s language acquisition in native and ... [more ▼]

Working memory, the capacity to store and manipulate information over brief periods of time (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) is suggested to play a crucial role in children’s language acquisition in native and foreign languages (e.g. Gathercole, 2006; Service, 1992). The present study investigated children’s working memory skills and vocabulary knowledge in their native and secondary languages in the context of immigration. Twenty Portuguese immigrant children growing up in Luxembourg, who speak Portuguese at home, and acquire Luxembourgish in a natural setting and German through scholastic instruction, participated in the study. Children were assessed on measures of phonological short-term memory (digit recall and nonword repetition) and complex working memory (counting recall and backwards digit recall) in both Luxembourgish and Portuguese, on vocabulary knowledge (Portuguese, Luxembourgish, and German) and on comprehension (Luxembourgish and German). The children were compared to three groups of monolingual children: 20 Luxembourgish speakers living in Luxembourg and 40 Portuguese speakers from Brazil growing up in families of high (N=20) and low (N=20) socio economical status (SES). Groups were matched on age (7 years), nonverbal ability and gender. In the Portuguese immigrant children, language competences in Portuguese, Luxembourgish, and German were at an equivalent level that fell below the linguistic competence of native speakers from Brazil and from Luxembourg. The 4 groups did not differ on two of the four working memory measures. On one of the complex working memory tasks (counting recall) the low SES group from Brazil manifested scores that fell below the three other groups. Finally, the Portuguese immigrant children performed equally well to their Brazilian counterparts in the repetition of the Portuguese sounding nonwords, whereas their performance in the repetition of the Luxembourgish nonwords fell below that of the native Luxembourgish speakers. These results are consistent with findings that phonological short-term memory performance is better for familiar rather than unfamiliar lexical material (Gathercole, 1995). As the Portuguese immigrant children and their monolingual peers from Luxembourg and Brazil performed at comparable levels on the working memory measures, their poor language performances in all three languages is unlikely to be related to a fundamental cognitive deficit. Their even lower knowledge of Portuguese, vocabulary than children from impoverished backgrounds in Brazil also rules out the hypothesis that their poor language skills are simply a reflection of lower socio-economical status. Instead, the findings appear to be a direct consequence of growing up as an immigrant in a multilingual society. [less ▲]

Are working memory measures free of socio-economic influence?

in Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing research (2008), 51(6), 1580-1587

PURPOSE: This study evaluated the impact of socioeconomic factors on children's performance on tests of working memory and vocabulary. METHOD: Twenty Brazilian children, aged 6 and 7 years, from low ... [more ▼]

PURPOSE: This study evaluated the impact of socioeconomic factors on children's performance on tests of working memory and vocabulary. METHOD: Twenty Brazilian children, aged 6 and 7 years, from low-income families, completed tests of working memory (verbal short-term memory and verbal complex span) and vocabulary (expressive and receptive). A further group of Brazilian children from families of higher socioeconomic status matched for age, gender, and nonverbal ability also participated in the study. RESULTS: Children from the low socioeconomic group obtained significantly lower scores on measures of expressive and receptive vocabulary than their higher income peers but no significant group differences were found on the working memory measures. CONCLUSION: Measures of working memory provide assessments of cognitive abilities that appear to be impervious to substantial differences in socioeconomic background. As these measures are highly sensitive to language ability and learning in general, they appear to provide useful methods for diagnosing specific learning difficulties that are independent of environmental opportunity [less ▲]

ARE WORKING MEMORY MEASURES FREE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES?

Scientific Conference (2007, September)

This research investigated the hypothesis that working memory skills are independent of environmental factors such as socio-economic or cultural background. Study 1: Twenty Brazilian children aged 6 and 7 ... [more ▼]

This research investigated the hypothesis that working memory skills are independent of environmental factors such as socio-economic or cultural background. Study 1: Twenty Brazilian children aged 6 and 7 years from low socio-economic status families were evaluated on measures of working memory (verbal short-term memory and verbal complex span, taken form the AWMA: Automated Working Memory Assessment) and of vocabulary (expressive and receptive). They were compared with typically developing Brazilian children from the same region, matched on age, sex, and nonverbal ability from families of higher socio-economic status. Children from the low socioeconomic status group obtained significantly lower scores on the vocabulary tests but not on the verbal short-term memory measures, compared to their peers from a higher socio-economical background. Both groups differed on one of the two complex span measures - counting recall - but performed equally well on backwards digit recall. The results indicate that tests of verbal short-term memory and also backwards digit recall provide measures of cognitive abilities that are not biased by the quality of the child's socio-economical background. Study 2: The Brazilian children were also compared to a population of Portuguese- speaking, immigrant children growing up in Luxembourg, evaluated on the same measures. Results will specify whether or not, in addition to being independent of socioeconomic background, verbal short-term memory and backwards digit recall are also free of cultural bias. As these measures are also highly sensitive to language ability, they may provide useful methods for diagnosing language disorder that are independent of environmental opportunity. [less ▲]

Working memory, phonological awareness, and language learning

Scientific Conference (2007, August)

This study investigated the relationship between working memory, phonological processing and developing language skills in a population of children growing up in a multilingual context involving the three ... [more ▼]

This study investigated the relationship between working memory, phonological processing and developing language skills in a population of children growing up in a multilingual context involving the three languages of Luxembourgish, German, and French. A sample of 122 children from Luxembourg, aged between 5 and 7 years, participated in the study, and completed assessments of phonological short-term memory, complex working memory, phonological awareness, native and foreign vocabulary knowledge, language comprehension and reading. The data were best characterized by a measurement model in which working memory consists of two related yet distinct components – corresponding to phonological short-term memory and a central executive – that were distinct from phonological awareness. Language abilities in both the native and foreign languages were more strongly associated with phonological short-term memory than other constructs in the model. The findings lend strong support to the proposal that vocabulary learning in particular is mediated in part at least by the phonological loop component of working memory. [less ▲]